ponent parts of a foil; the natural quality, and condition of thofe parts, is of the ntmoft import. There are clays and fands of the utmost fertility by nature, in Effex and Suffolk, on the fouth coaft, and in the weft, for inftance; other clayey and fandy lands are fo naturally fteril and hungry, that they will fwallow up an immenfity of manure, with very little apparent, or very tardy benefit. The turnips of fuch poor lands, as I have elsewhere obferved, are by no means fo nutritious as thofe produced upon rich foils, nor will they fatten cattle without other affiftance. I fhould fuppofe the lands in Bedfordshire to be generally of a fuperior defcription, and that the dryeft of thofe of G. A. ftirred deep and wrought as fine as poffible, would produce a confiderable and profitable weight of the best English turnips. Thefe might be ftacked, in full perfection, before the froft had either damaged them, or diminifhed their weight, the tops being thrown to the cattle. But I have ftill known turnips ftacked in the most careful way, and in a warm fituation, affected, and even rotted by the froft; and, in very fevere weather, they are but a cold and watery diet. I fubmit it to G. A.'s fuperior information, whether it would not be amufing, and not improbably advantageous to him, (if he has not already) to make trial of cabbages, for the bulk fake, and of the fuperior roots just now mentioned. The fuccefs of cabbages must be certain. Potatoes will fucceed on his land, to a certain degree, and although (notwithstanding fome pretenfions to the contrary) they are worfe than ufelefs without boiling, with it, their ufe is great, particularly with pig ftack. Carrots and parfnips are not fo nice about the quality, as the depth of the foil; and if fuccefs with them fhould not be of the firft rate, yet ample amends is made, by their excellent quality, and the comforts they difpenfe among the farming ftock, in a fevere win ter. The wintry wetness of the foil does not fo much affect thele, fince they are a fummer crop, and fhould he got in as early as poffible, upon all earths, but fands: to this end, they fhould be fown on winter fallows, laid up in broad and high lands, carefully drained with water furrows. The foil being deep, well worked and well manured, the carrots will be large and long, but not of fo deep a colour, nor indeed in fo great a quantity, as on rich fands; in which predicament, in point of quantity I mean, turnips alfo ftand. I obferve mention made of "fheep ftanding up to their hocks" in wet clays. Is it then the practice to winter fheep on fuch lands? I am partial to wintering all kinds of stock at home, and as much under cover as poffible. The Italian method of wintering fheep in pens, or warm yards, has been tried in England, particularly by Mr. Young, with great fuccefs. Are sheep a fit ftock for wet, clayey foils? On these points I fhould efteem myself highly obliged to G. A. for information. For my own part, I am much attached to pig ftock, with which I have been largely concerned. A PRACTICAL FARMER. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. SIR, ERMIT me to offer to the notice of PERM your readers a few examples of etymology, derived from the Welfh language, prefaced by the enumeration of fome of the leading proofs, which ought to induce a recurrence to that tongue, for the explanation of the names of places in different parts of Europe. The first preliminary obfervation is, that it can be fully proved, though it is generally admitted, that the original inhabitants of moft of this part of the world were a people who have improperly paffed under the denomination of Celts, and from whom the Web are immediate defcendants. Secondly, that the most ancient appellations are thofe of countries, feas, rivers, and mountains.. Thirdly, that a great proportion of the names of places have no meaning at all in, or are not words of the modern languages of the feveral countries where they are fituated. Fourthly, in confequence of the foregoing premifes, it is to be inferred, that thofe names are words which never had any fignification ; or they are the remains of the language of a prior race of people. Fifthly, there are abundant proofs to fhew that the Welsh language is, at the prefent day, exactly what it was in the twelfth century, even to the peculiarity of dialects in the different parts of Wales. Sixthly, the inference from the last proof is, that if no change took place in the courfe of fix centuries, and during the greateft part of that period the Wel people were in clofe connection with the English, a lefs change, if poffible, must have happened in an equal length of time prior to the twelfth century, when they were without any intercourfe with frangers. Seventhly, The title of king of the Two Sicilies, belonging to the crown of Naples, is of itfelf a fufficient evidence to fhew that the name must have an allufion to fomething common to the island properly fo called, and alfo to the country about Naples; and nothing can be more remarkably fo than the two celebrated volcanoes of Etna and Vefuvius. The word Sicily, by preferving the primitive found of Cas K, is very nearly the Welsh Cegulw, which is pronounced as if it were written Kekeeloo in the English orthography; and the fignification of it is, the mouth of burning cinders; being derived from Ceg, a mouth, and Ulw, burning cinders, hot afhes, or embers. The initial of Cegulw has three mutations, which, for want of appropriate characters, I mult thus exemplify: Bár e Gegulw, the peak of the combustible mouth; Bár a Chegulw, a peak with a combuftible mouth; In-Nghegulw, in a combustible mouth and thefe mutations account for writing Sicily, instead of Cicily, or Kikily, which ought to be the word in its abfolute form. Hence the appellation of the Two Sicilies implies the tavo burning craters. MOUNT ETNA. In this name may be recognized the Welsh words, E TANA, the accumulation of fire, which may be thus further explained: E, the; TANA, to accumulate fire, and alfo fire collected together; and the root of TANA is Tân, which primarily means expansion, and fire in a fecondary fenfe. So MONT E TANA, MONTE TAN, and MONT E TANIO, are literally the mount of the accumulating fire, the mount of fire, and the mount of the firing; or, the burning mountain. MOUNT VESUVIUS. This name means the mountain of the combuflible mouth, if it is to be identified in MONT VUS-HYVYS, which words are pronounced almost exactly like it; and is thus explained: Vus-byvys, if it were not governed in conftruction by the word Mont, would be Bus-hyvys in its abfolute form, from Bus, a mouth or aperture, and Hyvys, from Hyv, apt or capable, and Ys, a confuming or burning. STROMBALI. The Welsh words STRUM BALI, which are exactly of the fame found as this name, imply the ridge of eruption, or the dif gorging riage; and they are thus explained: Yftrum, a ridge, from the prefix ys and trum, is, by the common elifion of the y, written 'Strum; and Bali, a difgorging, is a collective noun, from Balu, to throw out, to eject, or to erupt. ex Having, as I conceive, fo fuccefsfully found the before-mentioned names plained in the Welsh language, I am tempted to rob Vulcan of part of his honours, by deriving the term volcano from the fame fource. In fo doing, it is neceffary firft, to obferve that the initial V is not a radical letter; and that its found in the Welsh is the fecondary power, or mutation of M and of B. Í therefore fix upon Bal-cynnau, or the burning peak, or burning mountain, as the original, from whence Volcano is derived: and under various forms of constructions it is very like in found; as E VAL-CYNNAU, the burning peak; and to give the found of Val-cynnau, according to the English orthography, it must be written Valconno, which differs but very little from Volcano. BAL-CYNNAU is formed from Bal, a term for a conical hill, or peak, and efpecially fuch as is thrown up, and Cynnau, to kindle, or to take fire and alfo a firing, or kindling. I am, Sir, your's, &c. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine, SIR, BY no means intended to affert that the English translation of the bible fhould be confidered as the standard for biblical criticism; but what I advanced in my reply to M. R. was merely that it was rendered perfe&tly confiftent with itfelf; and this confiftency is ftill maintained in all the paffages which your correfpondent M. R. quotes (p. 247 of your magazine for October laft) to prove his former pofition; and I will now proceed to offer a few reafons why the word JEHO VAH is rendered Lord in thofe paffages. Although in the original Hebrew the word JEHOVAH is every where made ufe et : of in the paffages above alluded to, yet, in the English bible it is tranflated, I think very properly, Lord; for it does not appear that the word JEHOVAH was at that time ufed as a particular title of diftinction, but afterwards, when God renews his promife to deliver the Ifraelites from the Egyptian bondage, and to carry them into Canaan, he more fully declares his power, and by the name of JEHOVAH enters into a covenant with them here then is the firft paffage in which this word is used as a particular title of diftinction; for in the other paf fages that great honour is not attached to the name, which here feems to be implied, and therefore it was not neceffary that it fhould be tranflated otherwise than by its common fignification; but where the Almighty fo exprefsly affumes this title to be a memorial of the covenant between him and the Ifraelites, then it appears as if it was to be confidered as a title of honour. M. R. feems to have misunderstood my meaning, when he fays, that I maintained that the word "fhem" fignified "a title of honour." I did not fay that that word fignified "a title of honour," but that a particular title of diftinction was attached to the word JEHOVAH in that paffage. It is well known that the Jews retain fo great a veneration for the word JEHOVAH that they are forbidden to pronounce it. In former times it was only the high priest that might pronounce it, and that but once a year, at the folemn benediction of the people in the feast of expiation. It appears by the fragments which we have remaining of the Hexapla of Origen, that he wrote Adonai in all places where JEHO VAH was in the Hebrew; and we do not find that St. Jerome either makes ufe of this word in his tranflation of the bible, or in his other works; he follows the ancient Greek interpreters, tranflating it, for the most part, Lord. I muft, however, confefs that I am more inclined to favour bifhop Warburton's explanation of the paffage than M. R's objections against it, inasmuch as by his explanation the paffage feems to be rendered entirely free from that obfcurity which your correfpondent fuppofes to exift in it. Your's, &c. we editors and felectors of Calmet's great Dictionary, now publishing by C. Taylor. A confiderable portion of part third is appropriated to the different interpretations of ayysλos, angels, or agents, meffengers, &c. but towards the clofe of this very interefting and entertaining article, there is an opinion which might have created no surprise in the last century when Calmet wrote, but which feems rather extraordinary to have crept into this modern edition at the end of the eighteenth century. Angels are here reprefented as fent from the throne of divine mercy in various fervices to mankind, in which they may be (and probably are) always engaged, though invifible to us; may receive from them much good or evil, without our being aware of any angelic interference." Upon reviewing the previous parts of this article, there does not feem to be any part of the references from facred authorities, nor can I trace any which lead to fo pofitive a conclufion. as of this continual miniftration of angels. The various difpenfations and interpofitions of divine providence, as well genéral and particular, I am ready to admit, and any thinking man who acknowledges a fuperintending caufe, well deny them; but this miniftration by angels, over each individual, however invifibly it may be effected, seems to be fo poetical, and at the fame time fo contradictory to the divine declarations, which state that the feafons of God's vilitations by miraculous agents is paffed away, that I must beg to enter my proteft against the continuance, at this enlightened period, of any fuch doctrine. It has hitherto been the bafis on which fuperftition has built all her fearful terrors-upon which the ignorant and the young have been led to fear inftead of loving the ways of religion; and facred things have been wrapped in a veil of alarm, which has fhaken the most placid innocence, and disturbed the most peaceful mind! 66 cannot It is re To ftrengthen this doctrine, the editors offer an inftance from Job, where Satan, an evil angel is reprefented as producing ftorms, &c. by his activity-though Job knew not that it was Satan." markable that this book of Job, which moft critical writers have long fince fettled to be an allegorical or epic poem, fhould have been felected for an inftance or proof of the doctrine advanced; but if this did not shake it, enough is faid in the very next fentence to overthrow any re liance upon this examples but Job referred it all to the good pleasure of God, acting by natural caufes." Now Job is here made to act like a natural and rational being. There was no fimilitude to the other cafes of Abraham, Manoah, &c. whofe angels, having performed their meffage, made themselves known by fome vifible fign. There was a fect of the ancient Jews, and there are many people to among moderns, fo fuperftitious as believe that each perfon has his peculiar fpirit or angel watching over their steps; and to help themfelves on in the depth into which they have thus plunged, they PROCEEDINGS at large of the NATIONAL INSTITUTE of France, on the 4th of July, 1798, as published by the Secretaries. NOTICE of the Labours of the Class of [Year VI. of the French Republic-ivth Tri- HE clafs of Moral and Political THE Sciences had propofed, as a fubject for one of the prizes to be diftributed by the Institute, the solution of the following question: "What are the most proper inflitutions to found the morals of a people?" The clafs has received fifteen memoirs on this fubject: three of them appear to merit a diftinct notice, because their authors have approached to the end propofed in the question; but not judging that any has attained it, the prize will not be diftributed. The works of which the clafs has thought fit to make a particular mention are, that which was depofited on the third day, at the office of the fecretary of the InAitute, and which bears for epigraph thefe verfes of Horace : "Si forte neceffe eft fingere, non exaudita Continget dabiturque licentia fumpta pudenter.” That which was inferibed under number 6, and which has for its epigraph this paffage of Cicero: "Nec enim ulla res vehementius rempublicam continet quam fides." That which was infcribed under number 10, bears for epigraph these words, taken from the memoir itself: On n'homore point la vértu, on la reSpelte." The clafs has thought proper to propofe the fame queftion afresh: it was alfo confidered, at the fame time, that the clementary queftions of the general queftion require to be indicated in a new program. This program will be published in the Etting of the 15th Vendemiaire next. The clafs of Moral and Political Sci ences had also to adjudge a prize upon this question: "For what objects and on what conditions is it expedient for a republican state 10 open public loans ? As the authors of the memoirs fent to the concurrence, or concours, do not appear to have attained the end of the question, the clafs propofes the same subject afresh. In a feparate program, which appeared in the Monthly Magazine for January, the following question in focial science was proposed: "How far ought the power of a father of a family to extend, and what limits Should be prescribed to it in a well-conflituted republic?" Although this laft queftion involves very interefting matter, and efpecially at a period when the legislative body is about to be employed in digesting a civil code, the clafs probably entertained the firft idea of it from a very extenfive difcuffion which took place at one of its own fittings, on paternal authority. The clafs had been invited to this discussion by two memoirs of our fellow-member DESALLES, and by a memoir in two parts of our fellowmember REDERER; all three relating to the principles of government in China. In his first memoir, entitled "On the influence which defpotifm in China, and the morals which accompany it, have produced on the forty centuries of its ftable auration,” Citizen DESALLES, after combating RAYNAL, who thought he had discovered principles of republicanifin in the govern ment of China, draws a conclufion, from a comparative examen of all the hiftories grounded upon the Chinese writers, and from the different voyages of embaffy, that China, during the term of its twentytwo dynasties, has never admitted into its government government any other than the most antirepublican forms. In his fecond memoir, intitled: A new enquiry into the defpotism of right and effential fact in the Government of China, Citizen DESALLES, after having fhewn that defpotifin is the concentration in one fingle perfon of all the powers which the focial compact requires to be effentially divided and communicated, proves, that in China, the three powers are referred by the law to the hereditary fovereign: he proves afterwards, that there, as every where elfe, this hereditary fovereign has almost always abufed it, fo that if we divide the forty centuries of the duration of the Chinele empire into three parts, it would appear that about 1500 years have been confecrated to the nullity (nullite) of their monarchs, 1500 years to their crimes and unprincipled oppreffions, and fcarcely 1000 to philanthropic tolerance, happiness and virtue. Citizen REDERER, ftruck with the great phenomenon which the Chinese nation prefents, viz. the ftability of its government, in fpite of its immenfe population and territory, thinks, on the other hand, that the honour of it does not pertain to defpotilin, but to inftitutions really republican, which, under appearances of oppreffion and even of fervitude, in China, furmount the powers of defpotifm. Thefe inftitutions are that of the choice of magiftrates, and that of the patriarchal authority, which laft is very different from paternal authority. The author makes it appear, that in China all magistracies are really elective, that all the Chinese are equally free to arrive at the most eminent, that no one obtains them unless by gradual promotions from college to college, the refult of public examinations, in which the emperor has no concern; that the Mandarins, who have all been educated in the fame common schools, all inftructed in one and the fame doctrine, all drawn without di ftinction of origin, from the body of the nation, all armed, by the ufages of the country, with many means of refifting oppreffion, muft neceffarily be, and are all in reality, interested to fupport the people against defpotifm, and not to ferve as an inftrument of despotism against the people, The organization of families appears to our colleague to be a fecond barrier against the abufes of every fpecies of public power. "In Europe," fays he, "where The paternal fyftem is adopted, wherever a hundred thousand heads are united to gether, twenty thousand fathers of fami lies are to be governed; in China, where the patriarchal fyftem is adopted, whereever there are a hundred thousand individuals, the government has only to taks charge of two thoufand persons, from which difference must refult the double advantage of rendering a great people more eafy to govern, and yet more diffcult to opprefs. In effect, wherever a thousand heads of families can arm at leaft fifty thousand individuals, there must either be frequent and terrible commotions against power, or great management on the part of those who exercile power towards the fubjects." The labour, of which we have juft given an account, having obliged our colleague to bestow his refearches for a long time on the language and writing of the Chinese, this has led him, in another memoir, to compare the advantages and inconveniences of the two fyftems of writing adopted in all civilized nations; fymbolical writing, or the reprefentative of ideas, which is that of the Chinefe; and alphabetical writing, or the reprefentative of founds, which is that of the Europeans; and, on this occafion, he draws a parallel between the Chinese and the French writing. Whichever of thofe may be entitled to pre-eminence, much may be gained, according to the author, by ftudying the principles of the Chinete language at a time when all men's minds are turned towards perfecting the means of communication between nations. He thinks that writing, like articulated language, and the language of action invented by LEFEE and SICARD, may become a real inftrument of analyfis, and that it may be poffible to eftablish between these three means of communication, fuch an accordance, that one may ferve as a fupplement or controul to the other. The refearches of Citizen REDERER have likewife often given him occafion to furnish observations proper to mark the influence of figns upon ideas, and to set in a clear light the full importance of the question propofed on this fubject, by the National Institute. Citizen VILLETERQUE, agreeing with Citizen RDERER as to the influence of figns upon ideas, and perfuaded that it is only by diminishing the too frequent approximations in language, by means of better conceived definitions, that we can add to the evidence of fuch approxima tions as are defigned to maintain the analogy of ideas with the faculty of generalizing, has endeavoured, in a memoir entitled, On Philosophical Experience, to seize and |
