The only object of the Hindû farmer, is to raife as many white. crops as his land will bear. When it is entirely exhaufted, he permits it to lye wafte until it regains its productive powers, when the fame courfe of cropping is again purfued. In the vicinity of Allahabad, when the field is exhaufted, they turn in sheep to manure it. 3. The total want of green crops is a formidable check to the improvement of any country, but more especially of fuch a country as Hindûftan. Without fuch a fpecics of cropping, the whole fyftem must be bad, the quantity of dung produced must be trifling, and the flock of an inferior and beggarly defcription. 4. From the want of artificial graffes, the fkill of the farmer and the improvement of the country at large is confined within narrow bounds, where the country is for fo confiderable a period deprived of all kind of vegetation by the exceffive heats. 5. In the choice of the proper feafons for ploughing and fowing, the Hindû is equally defective. 6. The barbarous fyftem of fowing two and three fpecies of grain in one field, is of itself fufficient to establish the character of Hindû husbandry. 7. The mode of reaping is equally defective: if two or three fpecies of grain are fown in the fame field, the Indian husbandman treads down a great part of his crop in order to collect each kind feparately indeed, fo fond is he of this method of proceeding, that he purfues it even where the crop is all of one kind, that he may felect what he reckons the ripeft. 8. The entire want of enclofures is an evil of fuch magnitude, that it is impoffible to calculate its extent. 9. But the great drawback to all improvement, is the infecurity of the ryut, who is still far from being completely protected, notwithstanding every thing that may have been done in his favour. The zemindar raifes his demand according to the produce of the year; and though an abatement is made in an unfavourable feafon, the uncertainty of rent operates powerfully to check all spirit of improvement. The collection of the rents in kind is attended by all that lofs and vexation which are found to accompany it in Europe. Finally, 10. In the want of capital, the farmer and the proprietor of Hindûftan feels an infurmountable obftacle to all improvement.

In the lower parts of India, the number of harvests are three; two of rice in the fummer, and one of wheat, barley and peas, in fpring. It would have been entirely inconfiftent with our author's inaccuracy to have mentioned the different periods at which the ploughing, fowing and reaping, takes place. In the upper provinces, the harvefts are two in number, Kheereef and Rubbeef; the former happening in September and October, the latter in March and April. The fpecies of grain cultivated in Hindûftan are extremely numerous, and in general different from

thofe

thofe which are raifed in Europe. Rice is the prevailing crop in the low country; and along the courfe of the Jumna and Ganges, from Allahabad upwards, wheat forms the principal object of the farmer's attention.

The measures which occur in the course of this work are, for land, the cutcha and pukka biggah, the former being equal to one eighth, the latter to one third of an acre. The latter is the most generally ufed, and is always meant where biggah occurs without the addition of the adjective.

Grain is measured by the weight, viz. by maunds and feers. The maund is 74 lib. 10 oz. 10 dr. avoirdupois, and a fraction of no great value. Taking the average weight of a bushel of wheat at 60 lib., the maund is bufhel 15 pints. If the grain is barley at 48 lib. a bufhel, the maund is 1 b. 1 p. 1 p. The feer is th part of a maund, and is equal to 1 lib. 13 oz. 13 dr.; about 2 pints. The calculations are made, taking wheat as the standard, except when barley is particularly mentioned. The maund is taken at 12 anas. This allowance is no doubt high; but it was thought better to do fo, as there was no average given. The rupee ufed is the Sicca rupee (2s. 6d.), confifting of 16 anas, valued at d. each.

The price of gram (a fpecies of tare) near Patna, is a rupee (2s. 6d.) for 30 feer. Rice and doht (a fpecies of pulse) fomewhat cheaper.

The fytem of rural economy in Hindûstan, closely resembles what in France was known by the title of the metayer fyftem, but which, in fact, is to be found in all countries in a similar state of improvement. The landlord provides the feed, upon which he makes very confiderable profit. The farmer pays his ploughman, partly in wages, and partly by giving him fo much land for his own ufe. This allowance is generally about 16 biggahs, or 5 acres arable. This quantity of land can be cultivated with one plough, and, in addition to it, there is generally given an equal quantity of waste or pafture land. The intereft of this leffee is merely annual. His condition is wretched in the extreme, and it appears that this clafs is the moft indigent of all the natives of Bengal. The labourer is in all refpects in a much better fituation, and the wages he receives greatly exceeds the profit of the poor

metayer.

In this country there exifts a burden upon agriculture, which has no exact parallel in any other country with which we are acquainted. In the village of each zemindary, there are a certain number of officers and artificers who receive a per centage, or allowance of grain from each plough, or at each harvest. Among thefe is the bhaut or poet, the village priest,

VOL. IV. NO. 8.

X

and

and the blackfmith. The zemindar is entitled to have his fhare of the work done at an inferior rate. Where a tradesman has no plough, he pays a certain fum of money. We can form no computation of the wages of thefe different people, as they receive payment for their work befides. In the Dooab, the tradefman is obliged to work for the allowance. This great divifion of labour, in the villages, is the more curious, as it does not occur in the manufactures of India. In vol. II. p. 18. it is mentioned that the manufacturer conducts the whole process of his profeffion, from the formation of his tools to the fale of his production. Unable to wait the market, or anticipate its demand, he can only follow his trade when called to it by the wants of his neighbours. In the mean time, he must apply to fome other employment; and and agriculture is the general refource. The inconveniences and evils of this system have been long felt and acknowledged. The remedy has never been confidered; and there feems but little profpect of any thing foon being done, to alleviate the misery, or improve the fituation of this defeription of men. The introduction of English capital, fkill and industry, appears to be the only refource. The indocility and prejudices of the natives have been ftated as likely to render even this ineffectual: but the fuccefs which has attended the introduction of the potato and the cultivation of indigo, and the perfection which they have attained (under the direction of Europeans) in fhip-building, feem to prove, that they want only the means and the opportunity of becoming a great and important addition to the ftrength and power of the empire.

In the two chapters commencing at p. 183. 191. vol. II., we have a detailed account of a zemindary in the neighbourhood of Benares, which is chiefly valuable for the information it contains as to thofe fingular practices which we have noticed above. The extent of the zemindary is 4000 tutcha, or 1500 pukka biggahs (500 acres). Of this, 300 acres are under the plough; the remaining 200 are waste or pafture land. The annual rent paid to government is 900 rupees (1121. 10s.); the proprietor's fhare, amounting to 100 rupees (121. 10s.) or 10 per cent. The number of inhabitants is 1000 living in one village, which, according to Dr Tennant, is nearly one perfon to each Scotch acre. We believe, if he will take the trouble of turning up p. 184, vol. II. of his own book, he will find that the fmall zemindary, of which we have lately had a description,' confifts of five hundred acres, which is exactly two perfons to each acre. The number of working cattle is 400. The wages of the ploughmen are five feer of the grain which happens to be in cultivation, and two rupees at each bulwary or ploughing season, namely, after the fetting in of the rains in June, and after they break up in October. The a

mount

mount of these wages are 7 quarters 3 bushels 4 pecks 114 pints, which is within a trifle of the wages near Allahabad, as will be, feen presently. The wages of the other country labourers, are 5 feers of grain, and a 25th fheaf during harvest. The reaper has a tenth of the coarse, and a twentieth of the finer grains. After all these deductions, the fhare of the ryut must be inconfiderable indeed. The food of the hufbandman in this district consists of rice, barley, with the various kinds of pea, either feparately or mixed. Wheat is only used by the higher ranks. The moft fubftantial meal to which the lower ranks can afpire, is a fort of porridge of fried grain, reduced to flour by a hand-mill.

In the district about Allahabad, the whole ftock of the farmer is not worth 8 rupees (20s.) exclufive of the value of his cattle. Wheat is the prevailing crop. A man and two cattle can till a biggah many times in a day. The protection of the feed and crop from the birds, is neceffary all over this country. This duty falls to the lot of the women and boys, though in fome parts it forms the occupation of the men.

The rate of wages in this diftrict, and the produce of an acre, as compared with thofe of England, will be feen from the following table, taking, according to Sir George Shuckburgh, is. 5d. as the average wages of a labourer, and 7s. 10d. as the price of a bufhel of wheat. In order to get real and practical information upon the fubject, it is neceffary to ftate the value of the wages, &c. in grain, the money price of labour forming no standard of comparifon.

From this table it appears, that the quantity of feed fown in each country is nearly the fame, while the produce is nearly treble in India. The circumftance moft worthy of attention, is the high wages of the Indian. According to the ufual calculations, a man in England confumes a quarter of wheat per annum, and the inhabitants over-head 6 bufhels. Out of the remaining

7 quarters he has to pay for his houfe, his clothes, taxes, and r variety of other things which cuftom has rendered neceffary to his existence. The Indian labourer (for the ryut is by no means fo well off) receives within one quarter of as high wages as the English peafant, without having any of thofe outgoings to diminish his income. If the fact is as here ftated, (and it agrees with what the author himself states relative to the wages near Benares), we are at a lofs to find a reafon for fuch a fingular circumftance. The labourer receives a certain allowance at certain periods of the year, entirely independent of his regular wages. From the largenefs of that allowance, there is reafon to think that it was fixed in a period of great profperity, or adopted for the purpose of making the regu Fation of wages more eafy. This cuftom prevails alfo in the fouthern part of the peninfula. Much light would be thrown upon the whole fubject, if fome perfon would communicate to the public an account of the Carnatic and the Myfore. This clafs of day-labourers appears now to bear a very fmall proportion to the

metayers.

In Bengal, the ftate of the peafantry and produce of the land feems to be much inferior to what we have been contemplating in the vicinity of Benares and Allahabad. The ftate of the new country of Bengal must bid defiance to the kill and implements of the country; and we repeat again, that the only remedy to the evil is by introducing the industry and the capital of this

country.

The farmer of the lower provinces does not depend, however, upon the cultivation of grain for the profit of his farm. It is upon the produce of his dairy, arifing from the profits from the fale of milk, of eurds, and of ghee (clarified butter), upon which a profit of no less than 33 per cent. might be made with a tolerable capital. The poultry of Bengal are of a fmaller fize than those of Europe. The price of a pair of good turkies in the Bengal market is about 30 rupees (31. 15s.), for which fum you can buy 20 or 30 dozen of fowls. In the neighbourhood of Patna, turkies coft 6 rupees (15s.), fowls and ducks from fix to ten ana rupees.

From the introduction of that useful root the potato, and from its adoption in fome districts, we may expect great and lafting benefits to the natives of Hindûitan. The rice crops in that country are liable to fuch frequent deftruction, and their total failure, when it happens, is likely to be fo general, that it requires the utmoft exertion upon the part of government to obviate the bad effects likely to arife from fuch a state of things. As a dry feafon is the most unfavourable to a rice crop, and is that in which the potato grows to the highest perfection, the advantages arifing from having fuch a fubstitute, and at fuch a period, must

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