legends and extravagant assumptions, from a good translation of the Bible. Her defenders have, therefore, directed many attacks against Luther's labour, and have presumed to accuse it of frequently vitiating the sense of the original. Meanwhile the civil authorities in Germany continued their efforts to crush the Lutheran doctrine. In the same year Luther returned to Wittemberg, which gave occasion to lively demonstrations of joy; the learned and unlearned partaking equally in the general exultation. It was about this time that Luther had occasion to write to the Bohemians. They were beginning, he heard, to waver in their favourable disposition towards the new creed, in consequence of the divisions arising among its followers. He argued strongly, that to return to the Church of Rome was not the way to escape the evils of discussions, since no communion was more distracted by multiplicity of schisms. Indefatigable in his labours against the papacy, he soon after published a work, entitled, "Adversus falso nominatum ordinem Episcoporum." The next of his numerous publications was a small treatise, entitled, "De Doctrinis Hominum Vitandis." This may be considered an abridgment of his former book on "Monastic Vows." It is now time to direct our attention to the proceedings of the court of Rome. The virtuous, but inexperienced Adrian had paid the debt of nature on the 14th of September, 1523. His death gave occasion, as usual, to strong contentions of interest in the conclave. At last, Julius of Medicis was elected in the end of November, and assumed the name of Clement VII. The chief difficulty which he apprehended, in regard to the Reformation, arose from the extraordinary admissions made by his predecessor. He deemed it expedient, therefore, to negotiate as if Adrian had taken no active part in these unpleasant proceedings. ` Blind, like most bad governments, to the real cause of public discontent, Clement and his advisers looked, in particular circumstances and events, for that which they should have sought in the general diffusion of information. On the 7th of December, therefore, Clement addressed a letter to the Elector Frederick, alluding, in general terms, to the disturbances existing in Germany, and expressing a confident belief that the elector would advocate the cause of the church. This letter, in imitation of the example of his predecessors, was intended to pave the way for the farther progress of Campeggio's negotiation. Accordingly, on the 15th of January, 1524, that legate being about to repair to the diet assembled at Nuremberg, the pope wrote another letter to Frederick, still expressed in general terms, but in a style of studied complaisance, and intimating a wish that the elector would consult with the legate, in regard to the best means of restoring peace and tranquillity to the empire. Ably as this letter was penned, it does not appear to have extracted any answer from the wary Frederick. The publication of "The Recess of the Diet" took place on the 18th of April. It was divided into two general heads; the first regarding Luther and his doctrine, the second treating of the dangers which threatened Germany. Luther having speedily obtained a copy of the "Recess published by the diet, was strongly agitated by the conduct of the princes of Germany. With that disregard of consequences which so frequently marked his conduct, he instantly republished the Edict of Worms, of May 8th, 1521, and contrasting it with that of Nuremberg, had no hesitation to call the princes "miserable, infatuated men, set over the people by God in his anger." His views in other respects began to expand, and he ventured, on the 9th of October, 1524, to lay aside his monastic habit, and to assume the dress of a professor or preacher. A part of this year was passed by Luther in a manner much more profitable than controversy. He translated the Psalms into German verse, for the use of the common people; and added sacred hymns of his own composition. Luther now determined to settle himself in marriage. This step, remarkable in itself, on the part of one who had sworn celibacy, was rendered still more so by the existence of a similar obligation on the part of her whom he espoused. The advocates of the Church of Rome poured out the most vehement declarations against Luther, on the occasion of his marriage with a nun. Some affirmed that he was mad, or possessed with an evil spirit. The elector, John, now consented to take steps to make the Lutheran the predominant religion in his dominions. Though the majority of his subjects were favourably inclined to it, the change was too great to be effected otherwise than by degrees. Towards the end of 1525, an attempt, it was said, was intended to be made to cut off Luther by poison. In conse quence of the suspicion of some of Luther's friends, a Jew and several other persons were arrested at Wittemberg; but, on their examination, nothing could be discovered, and Luther interceded that they might not be put to the torture. They were accordingly set at liberty. Hitherto Luther had been not only the origin, but the main spring, of the opposition to the papacy: but the range which it now embraced, was too wide to be directed by the exertions of an individual. The farther progress of this opposition belongs, therefore, to general history, and would be wholly misplaced in a biographical relation. In directing the translation of the Bible, Luther now devoted much time. He had divided this stupendous labour into three parts, the Books of Moses; the subsequent History of the Jews; and, lastly, the Prophetical and other Books of the Old Testament. The version of the prophets did not begin to appear till 1527; and, in completing this part of his task, Luther received benefit from the assistance of some Jews of the city of Worms. The book of Isaiah was printed in 1528. Daniel followed soon after; and, in 1530, the whole was completed. His chief coadjutors in this noble undertaking were Bugenhagen, better known by the name of Pomeranus, Justus Jonas, Melancthon, and Matthew, surnamed Aurogallus. The year 1526 was the first, since 1517, that Luther allowed to pass without publishing a book against the Catholics. course of the year, however, he published In the his "Commentaries on Jonah and Habakkuk," along with some lesser pieces of Scripture criticism. diet, at midsummer, was held at the The imperial city of Spires, and the pressure of business was such as to require the attendance of the Elector John, during several months. Luther continued occupied in plans for the progress of the Reformation, which were to be submitted to the elector, as soon as more urgent business permitted him to give them his attention. Next year, 1528, Luther published his "Commentary on Genesis and Zachariah," as well as a Letter to the Bishop of Misnia, respecting the Eucharist. Luther, while residing at Cobourg, suffered several attacks of ill health, but nothing could relax his application to LUT his studies. He employed his time in the translation of the Books of the Pro phets, and in composing his "Commen tary on the Psalms.' of these graver employments, he sought From the fatigue relaxation in composing an Admonition to the Clergy assembled at Augsburg, which he thought proper to send to that city to be printed. It was entitled, "Admonitio ad Ecclesiastici ordinis Congre gationes in Comitiis Augustanis." During the following year, 1532, Luther published Commentaries on different portions of Scripture. It was now that he was destined to lose a valuable friend and protector, in the person of John, elector of Saxony, who expired of apoplexy, on the 16th of August, being cut off, like his brother Frederick, in his sixty-third year. The year 1536 was remarkable for the death of the great Erasmus. It is much to be larmented, that his dispute with Luther was revived two years before, with a great share of mutual asperity; Luther having gone so far as to bring the charge of atheism against his antagonist. Improperly as Erasmus acted in his latter years, he deserves to be regarded as one of the principal founders of the reformation. Luther's last controversy with Erasmus was followed by one with very different opponents, the Anabaptists. In the beginning of 1537, Luther was afflicted with a strangury, and the symptoms were so severe, that both he and his friends began to despair of his life. During this alarming illness, much anxiety was manifested for his recovery, as well by his friends as by the public characters who appears to have been complete, and he favoured the reformation. His recovery was able to resume his labours in the cause of religion. He prepared for the translation of the Bible, and published press two editions of his great work, the them successively in 1541 and 1545. It was in 1545, in Luther's sixty-second year, that his constitution began to exhibit strong symptoms of decline. But bodily infirmity was not the only misfortune of Luther. That constitutional ardour which enabled him to brave the threats of ecclesiastical and temporal rulers, was connected with a temper productive, in several respects, of much uneasy sensation to its possessor. It happened, also, very unfortunately, that the evening of Luther's day was clouded by an altercation with the lawyers on the subject of clandestine marriages. So strong was the effect of this accumula? tion of chagrin, that Luther lost his attachment to his favourite city, Wittemberg, and left it in the month of July, 1545, apparently determined never to return. Nothing could be more indicative of Luther's ardour of mind, than thus undertaking a journey, in the month of January, 1546, under such a pressure of bodily infirmities. The river Issel having overflowed its banks, he was five days on the road. His companions were his three sons, John, Martin, and Paul, and his steady friend, Justus Jonas. His health now, however, rapidly declined; and, on the 17th of February, he seemed dangerously ill. In the early part of the evening, he began to complain of an oppression at his breast, and had it rubbed with a linen cloth; this afforded him some ease. After supper he again complained of the oppression at his breast, and asked for a warm linen cloth. At one in the morning, he awoke Ambrose and Jonas, and desired that one of the adjoining rooms might be warmed, which was done. He then said, "O Jonas, how ill I am! I feel an oppressive weight at my breast, and shall certainly die at Eiselben." Ambrose made haste, and led him, after he got up, into the adjoining room. He got thither without any other assistance; and, in passing the threshold, said aloud, “Into thy hands I commit my spirit." Luther now prayed, saying, "O my heavenly Father, eternal and merciful God, thou hast revealed to me thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ! I have preached him, I have confessed him, I love him, and I worship him as my dearest Saviour and Redeemer; him whom the wicked persecute, accuse, and blaspheme." He then repeated_three times the words of the psalm, "Into thy hands I commit my spirit-God of truth, thou hast redeemed me." Whilst the physicians and his attendants applied medicines, he began to lose his voice, and become faint; nor did he answer them, though they called aloud and moved him. He expired between two and three o'clock. Luther was no ordinary man. In all his proceedings, various as they were, in his preachings, his treatises, and disputations, we discern no step taken for the gratification of personal advantage; all is disinterested and zealous; all is prompted by an anxiety to understand and promulgate the word of God. In considering Luther as an author, we are struck with the extent and variety of his labours. They consist of controversial tracts, of commentaries on Scripture, of sermons, of letters, and of narratives of the chief events of his life. The leading feature of his controversial writings is an unvaried confidence of the goodness of his arguments. His compositions of all kinds, including sermons and epistolary disquisitions, are calculated, by his distinguished biographer, Seckendorff, at the extraordinary number of eleven hundred and thirty-seven. Where the mass of writing was so large, we must expect little polish of style. Luther's imagination was vigorous, but the cultivation of taste engaged no part of his attention. His inelegance of style has been chiefly remarked in his Latin publications. His theological system he professed to found altogether on the authority of Scripture. Warm as he was in temper, and unaccustomed to yield to authoritative demands, he yet possessed much of the milk of human kindness. His frankness of disposition was apparent at the first interview, and his communicative turn, joined to the richness of his stores, rendered his conversation remarkably interesting. The visitor of Luther's domestic circle was assured of witnessing a pleasing union of religious service with conjugal and paternal affection. The diffusion of religious knowledge being always foremost in Luther's mind, he was fond, when along with his friends, of turning the conversation in that direction. Nor was there any objection on the part of his associates. As a preacher, he was justly celebrated. He mounted the pulpit full of his subject, and eager to diffuse a portion of his stores among his audience. The hearer's attention was aroused by the boldness and novelty of the ideas; it was kept up by the ardour with which he saw the preacher inspired. In the discourse, there was nothing of the stiffness of laboured composition; in the speaker, no affectation in voice or gesture. Luther's sole object was to bring the truth fully and forcibly before his congregation. His delivery was aided by a clear elocution, and his diction had all the copiousness of a fervent imagination; and, in fine, few men have conferred on posterity so many benefits as this learned, pious, and zealous reformer. LUTHERANISM, the system of Protestantism adopted by the followers of Luther. It has undergone some alte rations since the time of its founder. Luther rejected the epistle of St. James as inconsistent with the doctrine of St. Paul in relation to justification; he also set aside the Apocalypse, both of which are now received as canonical in the Lutheran Church. Luther reduced the number of sacraments to two, viz. baptism and the eucharist; but he believed the impanation or consubstantiation; that is, that the matter of the bread and wine remain with the body and blood of Christ; and it is in this article that the main difference between the Lutheran and the English churches consists. Luther maintained the mass to be no sacrifice; exploded the adoration of the host, auricular confession, meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worship of images, &c., which had been introduced in the corrupt times of the Romish Church. He also opposed the doctrine of free will, maintained predestination, and asserted our justification to be solely by the imputation of the merits and satisfaction of Christ. He also opposed the fastings of the Romish Church, monastical vows, the celibate of the clergy, &c. The Lutherans, however, of all Protestants, are said to differ least from the Romish Church; as they affirm that the body and blood of Christ are materially present in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, though in an incomprehensible manner; and likewise represent some religious rites and institutions, as the use of images in churches, the distinguishing vestments of the clergy, the private confession of sins, the use of wafers in the administration of the Lord's Supper, the form of exorcism in the celebration of baptism, and other ceremonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and some of them as useful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard to the divine decrees, that they respect the salvation or misery of men, in consequence of a previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters, and not as free and unconditional, and as founded on the mere will of God. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the Lutherans began to entertain a greater liberality of sentiment than they had before adopted; though in many places they persevered longer in severe and despotic principles than other Protestant churches. Their public teachers now enjoy an un bounded liberty of dissenting from the decisions of those symbols or creeds which were once deemed almost infallible rules of faith and practice, and of declaring their dissent in the manner they judge the most expedient. Mosheim attributes this change in their sentiments to the maxim which they generally adopted, that Christians were accountable to God alone for their religious opinions; and that no individual could be justly punished by the magistrate for his erroneous opinions, while he conducted himself like a virtuous and obedient subject, and made no attempts to disturb the peace and order of civil society. In Sweden, the Lutheran Church is episcopal; in Norway the same. In Denmark, the episcopal authority is retained, and the name of bishop re-adopted instead of that of superintendant, which still obtains in most parts of Germany; though the superior power is vested in a consistory, over which there is a president, with a distinction of rank and privileges, and a subordination of inferior clergy to their superiors, different from the parity of Presbyterianism. Mosheim's Eccles. History; Life of Luther; Haweis's Ch. Hist., vol. ii. p. 454 Enc. Brit.; Robertson's History of Charles V. vol. ii. p. 42; Luther on Galatians. LUXURY a disposition of mind addicted to pleasure, riot, and superfluities. Luxury implies a giving one's self up to pleasure; voluptuousness, an indulgence in the same to excess. Luxury may be further considered as consisting in, 1. Vain and useless expenses. 2. In a parade beyond what people can afford. 3. In affecting to be above our own rank. 4. In living in a splendour that does not agree with the public good. In order to avoid it, we should consider that it is ridiculous, troublesome, sinful, and ruin ous. Robinson's Claude, vol. i. p. 382; Ferguson on Society, part vi. sect. 2. LYING, speaking falsehoods wilfully, with an intent to deceive. Thus, by Grove, “A lie is an affirmation or denial by words, or any other signs to which a certain determinate meaning is affixed, of something contrary to our real thoughts and intentions." Thus, by Paley, "A lie is a breach of promise; for whoever seriously addresses his discourse to another, tacitly promises to speak the truth, because he knows that the truth is expected." There are various kinds of lies. 1. The pernicious MAC lie, uttered for the hurt or disadvantage of our neighbour. 2. The officious lie, uttered for our own or our neighbour's advantage. 3. The ludicrous and jocose lie, uttered by way of jest, and only for mirth's sake in common converse. 4. Pious frauds, as they are improperly called, pretended inspirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are species of lies. 5. Lies of the conduct, for a lie may be told in gestures as well as in words; as when a tradesman shuts up his windows to induce his creditors to believe that he is abroad. 6. Lies of omission, as when an author wilfully omits what ought to be related; and may we not add, 7. That all equivocation and mental reservation come under the guilt of lying? The evil and injustice of lying appear, 1. From its being a breach of the natural and universal right of mankind to truth in the intercourse of speech. 2. From its being a violation of God's sacred law, Phil. iv. 8; Lev. xix. 11; M. MACARIANS, the followers of Ma carius, an Egyptian monk, who was distinguished, towards the close of the fourth century, for his sanctity and virtue. In his writings there are some superstitious tenets, and also certain opinions that seem tainted with Origenism. The name has been also applied to those who adopted the sentiments of Macarius, a native of Ireland, who, about the close of the ninth century, propagated in France the tenet afterwards maintained by Averrhoes, that one in dividual intelligence or soul performed the spiritual and rational functions in all the human race. MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of the Old Testament, which contain the history of Judas, surnamed Maccabeus, and his brothers, and the wars which they maintained against the kings of Syria, in defence of the Jewish religion, and the independence of their country. The author and age of these books are uncertain. The first is a valuable historical document, supplying important information respecting the Jewish affairs at the time to which it refers. The second contains a considerable quantity of spurious matter, and requires to be read with caution. Col. iii. 9. 3. The faculty of speech was There are a third and fourth book of Maccabees, but they are of no authority They are found in some whatever. MSS. and Edd. of the LXX., but have never been admitted into the Latin Bible. MACEDONIANS, the followers of Macedonius, Bishop of Constantinople, who, through the influence of the Eunomians, was deposed by the Council of Constantinople, in 360, and sent into exile. He considered the Holy Ghost as a divine energy diffused throughout the universe, and not as a person distinct from the Father and the Son. The sect of the Macedonians was crushed before it had arrived at its full maturity, See SEby the council assembled by Theodosius, in 381, at Constantinople. |