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trial of faith and piety, as exemplified by the story of Job. The author's creed centres in the idea: Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, and to depart from evil is understanding.' Therefore, while recommending a virtuous life, he bids men renounce the vain attempt of fathoming God's designs in the often perplexing destinies of the good and the wicked. Beyond this he did not advance; for he was unacquainted with the doctrine of immortality; had he been familiar with it, he would have pointed to an after-life for a solution of all the mysteries in the government of the world; indeed he would have hardly deemed his laborious discussions necessary; a few words giving Job the blissful promise of a happy life beyond the grave, would have sufficed to satisfy his doubts and silence his murmurs. This circumstance assists us in fixing the date of the Book. The prophet Ezekiel introduces the doctrine of resurrection in a manner which seems to prove that, at his time, it was fully understood and generally accepted (see p. 103). Therefore, the Book of Job was probably not written later than the Babylonian period, although the great development of the spirit world, as apparent in the introduction of Satan, shows the author's familiarity with Persian notions. The view formerly entertained, that the Book was composed in the times of the patriarchs, or by Moses, has justly been abandoned: for the tone of its moral precepts, the consummate skill it displays in the arrangement of the arguments, and above all its great freedom of philosophic inquiry, imply that the work belongs to the ripest and most finished productions of Hebrew genius.

E. ECCLESIASTES.

THE didactic element, which prevails in many of the Psalms, in the Proverbs, and in the Book of Job, attains even a fuller development in the Book of Ecclesiastes. This remarkable work affords one of the strongest proofs that the Hebrew mind, though peculiarly gifted for prophetic oratory and lyrical composition, was by no means averse to speculative thought.

It has been shown, in the remarks on the Book of Job, that the doctrine of retribution, to which the Hebrew people had long adhered, failed to satisfy reflecting minds. And yet the only solution which is able to secure peace and comfort-the belief in immortality and in a Divine judgment after death-was not known or accepted till a very late period. In this state of confusion, scepticism and infidelity naturally grew apace, and at last the frivolous saw the highest wisdom in the giddy enjoyment of the moment, and considered pleasure the true end of life. Yet there were never wanting among the Hebrews pious and earnest men, who, though unsupported by the old doctrine, and uncheered by the new one, escaped the taint of immorality and apathy. In the midst of doubt and uncertainty, they clung to virtue as the only safe anchor of life; and amidst the fluctuation of all things, they strove to discover principles of Divine Providence, to which they might trust as permanent and imperishable. It is to one of these independent minds that we owe the Book of Ecclesiastes, the tone of which, as may be

expected, is alternately despondent and hopeful, but which, as a rule, draws life with sombre rather than cheerful colours.

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The Book Koheleth' (p), which means Preacher,' contains indeed many maxims conveying counsel and instruction; but the Preacher' rarely addresses his words directly to the reader. He speaks as it were to himself; he discusses his thoughts aloud as they arise in his mind, he considers their value, and he finally arrives at a conclusion, in which he acquiesces as the most satisfactory attainable by him, though he feels that even that result leaves many doubts unanswered.

Unlike Job, he is prompted to his reflections not by overwhelming misfortunes, but rather by an excess of prosperity he has tasted every joy, and acquired every distinction that wealth and high position can bestow; yet he is unhappy and dissatisfied, and is prompted to question God's justice. In examining the chequered and perplexing lives of his fellow-men, he loses his peace of mind, and he cannot rest until he finds the clue to the mystery. But again and again he is bound to confess that man, in spite of his great endowments, is unable to unravel the riddle of life, and that he must abandon the task as hopeless.

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In the first sentences of the Preacher we find the keynote of the Book, which sounds with the melancholy burden, Vanity of vanities, vanity of vanities, all is vanity what advantage has man of all his labour which he takes under the sun?' This is the summary of his varied experience and reflections.

He first points out that the universal law both of nature and of human life seems to be constant but purposeless and unprofitable change-an unceasing movement in a circle without ever leading onward: One generation passes away, and another generation comes; but the earth

abides for ever. down, and hastens to its place, and then shines again; the wind goes toward the south and turns about to the north; it whirls about continually; and the wind returns. again according to the circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full, to the place whither the rivers flow, thither they flow again. The thing that has been is that which shall be; and that which is done, is that which shall be done; and there is nothing new under the sun. There are things whereof it is said, "See this is new "—it has been already of old time which was before us.'

And the sun arises, and the sun goes

Then the Preacher, in order to show that he is entitled to speak about the vanity of all earthly things, gives an account of his own person and pursuits. At first he sought satisfaction in knowledge and wisdom; but he soon found that they are utterly useless: I the Preacher was king over Israel in Jerusalem. And I gave my heart to seek and search out by wisdom concerning all things that are done under heaven: this is an evil toil which God has given to the sons of man to toil therein. I have seen all the works that are done under the sun; and, behold, all is vanity and vexation of spirit. That which is crooked cannot be made straight; and all that is wanting cannot be numbered. I spoke to my own heart, saying, Behold, I have attained more and greater wisdom than all that have been before me in Jerusalem; and my heart has acquired great wisdom and knowledge. But when I gave my heart to know wisdom, and to know madness and folly, I perceived that this also is vexation of spirit. For in much wisdom is much grief; and he that increases knowledge increases sorrow.'

Being thus disappointed, he next tried to find happiness in frivolity and sensual pleasure; but he soon became convinced that these are also unprofitable: I said in my

heart, Well then, I will prove thee with mirth, therefore enjoy pleasure! but, behold, this also was vanity. I said of laughter, It is mad; and of mirth, What does it?' He now attempted a combination of wisdom and worldliness, and employed his knowledge and intelligence to secure enjoyment and to increase his wealth; in these pursuits he found indeed some delight, but it was of short duration: 'I sought in my heart to give myself up to wine, while my heart guided me with wisdom, and to take hold of folly, till I might see what was that good for the sons of men, which they should do under the heaven, all the days of their life. I did great things: I built for myself houses, I planted vineyards, I made gardens and orchards, and planted trees in them of all kinds of fruits; I made ponds of water, to water therewith the wood that brings forth trees; I bought servants and maidens, and I had servants born in my house; I had also large possessions of great and small cattle more than any man that was before me in Jerusalem; I gathered for myself also silver and gold, and the treasures of kings and of provinces; I acquired singers and songstresses. . . So I was great, and increased more than all that were before me in Jerusalem: also my wisdom remained with me. And whatsoever my eyes desired I kept not from them, I withheld not my heart from any joy; for my heart rejoiced in all my labour; and this was my portion of all my labour. But when I looked on all the works that my hands had wrought, and on the labour that I had laboured to do; behold, all was vanity and vexation of spirit, and there was no profit under the sun.'

In this perplexity, he turned again to wisdom as his only guide, and he found that wisdom excels folly, as far as light excels darkness;' and that the wise man's eyes are in his head, while the fool walks in darkness;' yet on closer enquiry he was pained to see that in the end the