adequate steps be taken to prevent the spread of epidemics in cities, and to establish other fair and just relationships between city and country. Thus the demand of organized agriculture that it be exclusively allowed to control state departments of agriculture can no longer be sanctioned. They must take their place alongside of other executive departments of government and be subject to the will of the whole. body politic.

The growth of public agricultural organization, especially the United States Department of Agriculture, is remarkable for the development of its manifold activities. Its rapid development is all the more remarkable when it is recalled. that its establishment was postponed more than half a century from the time it was first recommended to Congress by Washington. We were for a long time dominated by an extreme laissez-faire economic policy and by a "states' rights" political theory. When a real beginning was finally made its growth was rapid. In the study of this development it is interesting to note the particular forces that are responsible for suggesting the various activities that were added from time to time. It is true that a great many came from farmers' organizations, from humane societies, from the railroads and from business, but it is also true that a large number of legislative recommendations are made every year by the department of agriculture to Congress or to the state legislature as the case may be without any suggestion from outside forces. Much legislation is conceived by the personnel of the department. Conferences are often held with groups who are interested. In fact such conferences are sometimes of the nature of developing favorable sentiment concerning proposed projects. Conceiving legislation on its own initiative, drafting legislation in response to demands from the outside, and recommending that it be enacted into law, constitute another important function of the department of agriculture.

The Functions of Private Agricultural Organization.The earliest private organization consisted of the general agricultural society. Clubs and county and state organizations were formed. Specialization in agriculture caused the general society to undergo a differentiation. As a result the horticul

tural society made its appearance early and other societies. were later organized along special lines. Thus there are the various livestock, field crop, truck, and fair associations. Since the middle of the nineteenth century there have come into being the newer farmers' organizations. They were born amid a veritable social upheaval. Great organizations developed, the largest of which was the Alliance. It gathered unto itself a membership of 3,000,000 within a few years, and abruptly destroyed its usefulness as an agricultural society by adopting partisan polities. The Grange was the first to organize, and its position seems to be secure. Its policy will, however, have to be somewhat more progressive along the lines of cooperation if it would continue to grow steadily and compete with other organizations.

There are four general functions that private organization performs. They may be stated to be the formulation of national agricultural policies, the improvement of the economic status of the agricultural class largely through the development of cooperation, aiding in the popularization of scientific agricultural education, and the creation of an improved social medium for the rural people. In chapters dealing with private organization the social features of farmers' organizations are discussed, and it is there pointed out that to make rural districts attractive, the people of all ages must be allowed to satisfy the social instinct. Varied amusement and entertainment must be furnished; and what is even more important, the people must have the opportunity to express their respective abilities in various roles. Frequently the only activity that satisfies is of an intellectual character. Literary and scientific discussions must be provided. Farmers' organizations through their local meetings have done much in the way of creating a wholesome social medium for the people of the country. The general introduction of the automobile will add considerably to their social life. A study of the various farm organizations will disclose a marked difference as to the emphasis placed upon the social feature; some in fact have not any. The same is true concerning popular agricultural education. The Farmers' Union and the Grange encourage the discussion of standardized topics. Lecture material is made available for all

local organizations. Special lecture hours are set aside for the discussion of subjects of practical interest. The specialized agricultural societies also play an important role in educating their members with respect to the particular farm products with which they are concerned. It was stated above that from the point of view of the country as a whole the educational efforts of private agricultural organization were too limited geographically, and lacked also too much in trained local leaders, to entrust the popularization of agricultural science wholly to it. Farmers' organizations are doing a great work especially in progressive sections of the country, but to insure permanency and the dissemination of scientific agriculture in all parts of the country the cooperative agricultural extensive service had to be created.

Considerable difference obtains among farmers' organizations as to the degree of cooperation they respectively foster. The Grange for many years after the '70s almost abandoned the cooperative movement. It is only recently that it has again become a live issue of the order. The Farmers' Union makes cooperation its principal raison d'etre, while the Farmers' Equity Union is virtually only a business association inasmuch as it organizes local unions only to establish cooperative exchanges. It is through cooperation that the farmers are planning largely to improve their economic status. The goal is to eliminate unnecessary middlemen and take their profit. Ultimately it is the plan to link up directly with the conIn the history of farm organizations considerable improvement in business methods is apparent. Successes are more general and a more thoroughgoing and more extensive system of cooperation among farmers seems imminent. certain lines it may go to the extent of developing temporary monopolies, but, as explained in the last chapter, it can never become a public menace.

In

An important function performed by private organization is the formulation of a progressive agricultural policy. As stated before agricultural policies are not conceived by farmers' organizations alone. The most comprehensive effort at popular agricultural education ever attempted in America, for instance, was promoted by Dr. S. A. Knapp of the United

States Department of Agriculture, who introduced the cooperative extension service. There are always impartial and sympathetic reformers associated with agricultural colleges, farm journals, and now and then with other interests, who lend their support to the advancement of agriculture. They help to formulate a national agricultural policy. But the one outstanding fact, that unless farmers are organized many of their demands go unheeded by legislatures and Congress, must be recognized. Leadership from the point of view of urging the enactment of political issues can only come from the farmers themselves. A tariff favorable to the agricultural class can only be secured through organized effort. It is a kind of tug of war in which various economic groups are concerned. The appointment of a secretary of agriculture who is favorable to the farming interests in the administration of the United States Department of Agriculture is likely to be made only when the chief executive is confronted with a display of organized power. Private organized agriculture maintains a definite relationship not only with the federal department of agriculture, but with the state departments as well. In some states this amounts to control. As already stated agriculture is now subject to considerable regulation and concerns all classes of citizens. Complete control over state departments of agriculture by the agricultural group is, therefore, making too large use of its organized power. However, if moderation is exercised, and if no more is done than to exercise the influence so far exerted upon the United States Department of Agriculture, private organization renders a real service to public agricultural organization. There is danger that government bureaus become too far removed from the people. Germany has been suffering from bureaucracy. Powers opposed to the free exercise of the will of the people may develop within bureaus and check progress or start a movement that will cause ultimate trouble. If the general policies of the United States Department of Agriculture are partially controlled by private forces there is no danger of developing bureaucracy in that branch of the executive government. Dr. Hadley in stating his opposition to a bill proposing the establishment of a federal department of

education says: "All the great pieces of progress of the last century were done in opposition to the national incubus of a centralized bureau." In the field of agricultural progress it must be recognized that private organization has done much to pull public organization to advanced mileposts, and that it has achieved progress in other ways; but a study of both public and private aspects of agricultural organization surely gives plently of evidence showing "that great pieces of progress" were also initiated by the Department of Agriculture, and that Dr. Hadley's statement is, therefore, entirely too sweeping.

Under the head of private agricultural organization special mention should be made of the function performed by breed associations. These associations have achieved marvelous results in the improvement of livestock. Their organization is a product of the last half of the nineteenth century, and under their direction more rapid progress has been made. in the improvement of livestock than during the entire previous history of animal breeding. They receive no public aid and constitute a form of organization that thrives best as a private enterprise. The motive of organization, that of profits to the breeders, guarantees continuity of existence to breed associations; and inasmuch as the interests of their members and society run parallel, the improvement of livestock may well be left to private initiative.

The Field of Public and Private Agricultural Organization. From what has already been said it is very obvious that in the field of agricultural progress there is a large body of facts and principles that can only be properly comprehended when studied from the point of view of organization. There is a history of agricultural organization running parallel with our political and economic traditions. Our pioneer status from colonial days down to past the middle of the nineteenth century demanded that efforts be made to import animal and plant life. The idea to organize for the purpose of improving agriculture or increasing productivity through the education of the rural people in practical agriculture was conceived and first applied in a very limited way during the latter part of