CHAPTER VIII

WEATHER BUREAU

Early Meteorological Observations.1-Almost from the beginning of colonial history, it is said, various individuals began the recording of meteorological data in America. Among some of these early notable meteorologists were John Winthrop of Harvard College, who began the collection of data in 1742; Thomas Jefferson, who made a series of observations from 1772 to 1778; and James Madison, who in cooperation with Jefferson instituted at William and Mary College observations made simultaneously with those at Monticello. These observations, it is believed, were the first simultaneous observations made in this country. At this time the science of meteorology was not understood because no simultaneous observations had ever been made over any extended area. The whole subject was shrouded in mystery and clothed with superstition. Even today, it is probably safe to say, more superstition prevails among the people concerning the weather than with regard. to any other natural phenomenon. Scientists held theories. concerning the nature of storms, but these lacked proof because sufficient data had never been collected. Franklin believed. that the storms traveled in a northwesterly direction; and others, during the first half of the 19th century, advanced the theories of the circular movement of the storms, that their existence depended upon convectional indrafts, and that their form was oblong or otherwise. In view of this scientific interest in meteorology, which before the middle of the century was probably greater than the interest associated with its practical uses, it is not surprising that the development of the science as well as the system for the collection of meteorological data and the distribution of forecasts, was centered in the Smithsonian Institution.

1 All facts concerning the development of meteorological organization before the commitment of the work to the Signal Service of the U. S. Army are taken from an article by Marcus Benjamin in The Smithsonian Institution, 1846-1896, pp. 647-678.

Meteorological Organization Before 1870.-The first systematic effort to collect meteorological data was begun by the Army Medical Department in 1814, which was continued to the Civil War. In 1817 the Commissioner of the General Land Office, whose organization scattered over the country was somewhat favorable, also began the collection of data. This in time became the parent of the work carried forward by the Patent Office under annual appropriations made by Congress from 1854 to 1860 for "the collection of agricultural statistics, investigations for promoting agriculture and rural economy, etc." A portion of this appropriation was devoted to assist ing the Smithsonian Institution in collecting and reducing meteorological observations.

In 1846 Alfred J. Henry was elected Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and almost immediately recommended "a system of extended meteorological observations for solving the problem of American storms." Henry asked the aid of the most prominent meteorologists in the country in maturing his plans which in brief were the placing of compared instruments in the hands of observers, and the coordination of all existing observers into a unified system. In response to Henry's request the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution appropriated for the purpose $1,000 which was, to be sure, a small sum with which to purchase instruments and pay the clerk hire necessary to carry on the correspondence with the observers and reduce the data reported.

Under the leadership of Henry the next step taken was to secure the cooperation of all observers then making observations. There were at that time scientists including Professor James H. Coffin of Lafayette College and Professor James P. Espy, a noted meteorologist, who were in correspondence with individuals taking daily observations. To such persons and other reliable parties a document giving instructions as to the taking and recording of observations, was distributed in 1848 through Members of Congress and others. This list of names of observers includes those of prominent scientists. The systems previously organized by the Army Medical Department and the Patent Office were also utilized and all observations were reported to a central office at the Smithsonian Institu

tion. Mention is made of a Congressional appropriation for meteorological purposes to the Navy Department whose cooperation Henry was anxious to secure. When, however, he speaks of the organization operating between 1854 and 1859 the Navy Department is not included. In fact the Navy observations were "confined exclusively to the sea and had no reference to those made at the same time on land." His words are as follows: "The primary object of the Smithsonian Institution is the advancement of the science of meteorology, and the elucidation of the laws of atmospheric phenomena; that of the Patent Office, to collect facts and to deduce therefrom. laws which have immediate reference to agriculture; while the system of the Medical Department is intended to be primarily subservient to the health of the troops and the advancement of medical science. These three Institutions are now in harmonious cooperation, and it is believed that it is no exaggeration to say that under their auspices more is now being done to advance meteorology than has ever before been attempted under any government." Already in 1849 Henry reports that there were 150 regular observers reporting, and that a fair start had been made toward establishing a meteorological organization extending over the greater part of the United States.

Operation of the System.-Blanks were prepared by the Patent Office and distributed under its franking privilege to the various observers who recorded the data and at the end of the month sent the record, known as "registers," also under frank, to Washington. The Smithsonian Institution forwarded. the registers to Professor James H. Coffin of Lafayette College, who with a clerical force at his disposal reduced the data. The reduction of data was later done by the Patent Office. In 1860 the appropriation from the Commissioner of Patents was suddenly discontinued so that reductions could no longer be made. This was the period of the Civil War and all things, it seems, conspired to put a stop to meteorological work which, at that time, had not yet found any important practical applications, such as were made during the recent European War

in the administering of deadly gases and in the bombing and scouting operations of airplanes.

It must be remembered that the daily observations made by the observers were at first reported monthly and that this was more or less satisfactory from the scientific point of view, but wholly useless for forecasting purposes. The use of the "magnetic telegraph" for reporting daily weather observations early suggested itself to Henry. His funds, however, were limited and he was compelled to ask permission of the telegraph companies for the free use of their wires at a certain period of the day. This request was granted, and made possible the charting of the data on a skeleton map of the United States which showed at a glance the location of the storm, high and low pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, and the likely direction in which the storm would move. Thus it is seen that forecasting is dependent upon rapid communication, and in the history of progress it must be noted that the telegraph was the precursor of the system of forecasting weather, hurricanes, and floods.

The first practical application of the telegraphic reports and charting them on the weather map was made in 1856 when the information was exhibited daily by hanging the map in public places in Washington and displaying the indications of the weather by means of signals from the tower of the Smithsonian Institution. The information was also given to newspapers.

These operations were also interrupted during the Civil War for the lack of reports from the South and because most of the lines of the North and West were too busy with other public business. Also at this time, 1863, Congress passed a law which prevented the observers to send in each month their registers by mail unless postage was prepaid. Inasmuch as these observers were not paid for their services, they could ill afford to pay postage for the forwarding of their monthly reports. The Commissioner of Agriculture was interested in weather reports in connection with the publication of his monthly crop bulletins, and for a time forwarded the necessary postage to the observers. In the meantime he petitioned Congress to extend the franking privilege to the obe rs for

the purpose of forwarding the registers, and soon secured. favorable action.

Movement to Establish a Meteorological Department.To the lack of funds and the interference of the Civil War must be added the fire of the Institution's building destroying many records and instruments in 1865, in summing up the handicap under which the Smithsonian Institution labored in its endeavor to develop a to develop a meteorological organization. Attempts were again made in 1867 to secure the free service of the telegraph companies, but without success. At this time agitation was in progress looking to the establishment of a meteorological department with sufficient funds to carry on its operations. Henry at once supported the movement and asked Congress for an appropriation of $50,000. No action. was taken until 1869 when a joint resolution was introduced which was approved February 9, 1870, and appropriated $25,000 for the establishment of a weather service under the Signal Service of the United States Army. The joint resolution reads. as follows:

Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, that the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is, authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological observations at the military stations in the interior of the continent and at other points in the States and Territories of the United States, and for giving notice on the northern lakes and on the seacoast, by magnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and force of storms.

Expansion Under Signal Service. In 1871 Congress provided for reporting stages of water in rivers. This function of the Weather Bureau is known as the River and Flood Service, and is one of the most valuable services performed by the Bureau. Stages along all important streams are reported to offices located on them and in this way river rises can be very accurately forecast. It is a service that has very great economic value to people along these streams inasmuch as sufficient time is usually given in the forecast of floods to allow the removal of families and property, or the taking of the necessary steps that will avoid disaster in various ways.

Further expansion followed in 1872 when Congress provided "for the benefit of commerce and agriculture" a system