duties of the board? Of each member of the board? How are vacancies filled?

TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL. Explain how districts may consolidate for a high school.

INDEPENDENT DISTRICTS. What are the usual boundaries? Show the relation of the school district to the city or town.

HOW ORGANIZED. Explain how an independent district may be organized.

BOARD OF EDUCATION. Number of members? Terms? When elected? How is the clerk selected? The treasurer? What is said of the powers of the board?

TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES.

How old must a teacher be? Why is a good moral character required of a teacher, but not of a member of the school board? Should not a good moral character be required of every public servant?

PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATES. How may a life diploma be obtained? A state certificate? For how long valid? How are provisional certificates obtained? What is their rank?

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CERTIFICATES. Where may one teach if he has one of these certificates? Who issues them? Explain how each of the four kinds may be obtained, and for how long it is valid. Tell how a regents' certificate may be obtained. What special certificates may be issued? By whom?

SPECIAL PROVISIONS. What special powers in granting certificates have independent districts in cities of the first class?

FEES FOR CERTIFICATES. What fees are charged for teachers' certificates?

REVOCATION OF CERTIFICATES. For what causes may certificates be revoked? By whom?

SCHOOL LAW ITEMS.

What are the provisions of the law concerning Bible reading? Tree planting? Consolidation? School years, months, and days? School holidays? Common school subjects? Tuition for eighth grade graduates?

"That the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."'-Lincoln.

CHAPTER XVII

NOMINATIONS AND ELECTIONS

Popular Elections. That those who are clothed with the power of carrying on the government may administer their duties for the benefit of the public rather than for their own interest, we elect them for a limited time. In some cases, as in cities under commission, the people may recall an officer who is not considered a competent or faithful public servant.

Political Parties. Differences of opinion give rise to political parties. This is illustrated in the first division of the people into political parties after the adoption of our federal constitution. Washington was unanimously elected President. There were no national parties, the nearest approach to them being the division of sentiment as to whether the constitution should be adopted or not, and this difference of opinion rapidly disappeared. John Jay was then in charge of the department of foreign affairs and continued after Washington became President. When congress provided for a secretary of foreign affairs (later called secretary of state) Washington asked Jay to accept the office. Jay refused the appointment, preferring a later one as chief justice of the supreme court, and Washington offered it to Thomas Jefferson, then minister to France, and presumably the next best informed person on foreign affairs. Robert Morris, who had charge of the finance department before the constitution took the place of the articles of confederation, was

offered the position of secretary of the treasury. He declined, but recommended a younger man, Alexander Hamilton. Washington had a very high opinion of this brainy young man and appointed him. Henry Knox was continued as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph was appointed to fill the new office of attorney. general. Washington considered the chief justice of the supreme court, John Jay, and the Vice-President, John Adams, his official advisers as well as members of his cabinet. These men were not selected from opposite political parties, as was once taught, but new political parties soon arose because of differences of opinion which developed among these men as to the policy and plan of carrying on the government. It soon appeared that Jefferson and Hamilton were the real leaders in political action, Jefferson favoring a strict adherence to the constitution and being very democratic, and Hamilton being aristocratic and favoring a liberal or "loose" interpretation of the constitution.

Hamilton recommended that congress charter a United States bank, somewhat like the Bank of England, of which the government should be a stockholder and part manager. Jefferson opposed the plan because he could not find that any power, to establish a bank was given to congress in the constitution. Hamilton argued that the constitution gave congress power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, among which was the power to lay and collect taxes, "to pay the debts," etc. The basis for two political parties, bound to arise among thinking men, grew out of the differences between these two leaders who, as Jefferson said, were "pitted against each other every day in the cabinet like two fighting cocks.''

or

They

The construction or interpretation given to the constitution by Hamilton and his followers is called "loose," "elastic, "broad," and we say they were "loose constructionists.'' called themselves Federalists, the name which had previously been applied to those who favored the new constitution. Jefferson and his followers were said to be "strict constructionists, " and the followers which rapidly formed about them in opposition to the Federalists were called by themselves Republicans, by their opponents, Democrats.

In 1793 France declared war on Great Britain. We had made a treaty alliance with France in 1778 by the terms of which both the United States and France agreed to protect forever each other's pos

sessions in America. France expected us to help her defend her West India islands. Washington asked his advisers whether the treaty was in force. Jefferson said "yes,'' and, strictly interpreting the treaty, he was doubtless right, though such an interpretation meant another war with Great Britain. Hamilton said "no," our national existence depended upon our keeping out of European wars. Washington adopted Hamilton's view and issued his famous neutrality proclamation, which was of untold benefit to us. In those days our national politics took color from the great struggle then going on in Europe, the Federalists siding with England and the Republicans taking the side of the French. A visitor to the United States at that time remarked that he found "many who favored France, many who favored England, but none who favored the United States."

Group Action. Every person is greatly influenced by the opinions of the community and of leaders. What one thinks is proper to wear, to eat, to say, and to do, is not due so much to his independent judgment as to the influence of public opinion. There are certain sentiments, beliefs, and standards of action which the group has, and these shape to a large extent the sentiments and convictions of each individual. As people become more civilized they think and act more in common. This is called the "solidarity of the race." We say we "belong" to a certain church, to this political party, or to that society or lodge. And we do "belong" to them—are governed by them in our thoughts and actions—more than we appreciate. Nearly all people who are not members of any church really belong to the great Christian world of men and women, are following the same ideals, cherish the same hopes, and contribute to the same worthy causes. Now this is just as true of political parties as it is of churches. Our political beliefs and utterances, our votes and legal actions, are due to the great body of beliefs, of attitudes, and of desires as to government which society as a whole has developed. "I am half of what I am because others are what they are."

Need for Political Parties. Political parties are needed in developing ideals of government, standards of public

action and public welfare, just as churches are needed for developing religious ideals and standards of conduct and morality. Each is a social instrument for carrying on a great work. The church is much more pure, and its defects are much fewer, but the very fact that politics is so often corrupt, insincere, and base, is the best reason in the world why all true citizens should co-operate more actively so that justice and civic righteousness may rule. As long as political parties are corruptly managed, so long will our government be dishonest, and influences for evil will flourish. It is just as important, perhaps even more important, that people take an earnest and intelligent interest in nominating candidates as in electing officials; in forming wholesome public sentiment on temperance and honesty, as in seeing to it that the liquor laws are enforced and that robbery is punished. A law which is not supported by public sentiment will be a "dead letter," but a public sentiment will often enforce action when there is no support of law, or it will soon secure legal support.

The Independent Voter. While party support and cooperation is necessary to get good government, the voter should not be a slave to his party. Most persons belong to the parties of their fathers and many have not the courage or intelligence to think and vote independently. They always vote the "straight party ticket," they are blind followers of political "bosses." Party support and party loyalty is a good thing, but the public good should always be first,—a political party is only a means to good government.

Nomination of Candidates

Caucus and Convention Method. Before 1907 candidates for office in South Dakota were nominated as follows: A caucus, or gathering of the voters of a political