"Breathing Wells" in Missouri.

I WOULD like to refer those interested in the subject recently presented in your columns (Dec. 16 and Jan. 13) to notes on such wells in Nebraska, published in the American Naturalist, April and May, 1883. The conclusions there presented harmonize with those demonstrated by Mr. Willard and Professor Sweezy.

The tendency of such wells to freeze was first brought to my knowledge in connection with some that occur near Mt. Leonard and Marshall, in Saline County, Missouri. They are frequent in what I take to be an ancient channel of the Missouri River, which has become filled, largely with sand. I was assured by several persons directly acquainted with the facts, one of them experienced in putting in and repairing pumps, that in such "blowing wells" pumps not infrequently froze to the depth of 70 or 80 feet below the surface, and in one case ice had been found in a pump cylinder 100 feet down, which was about 10 feet above the water. In all these cases the reservoir of confined air is in an extensive deposit of dry sand connecting with the outer air through the mouth of the well. J. E. TODD.

Vermillion, S.D., Jan. 24.

BOOK-REVIEWS.

People of Finland in Archaic Times. Compiled by J. C. BROWN, LL.D. London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, & Co. 290 p. 8°.

BR. BROWN has in view the compilation of a series of volumes on the ethnography of northern Europe, prepared for popular study, of which this is the first. It is principally composed of extracts and abstracts from the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala, and some additional material is obtained from other sources. The whole forms an excellent popular introduction to the study of this ancient and remarkable poem, and enables the reader to understand the cultural condition of the people among whom it originated.

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NEW YORK, FEBRUARY 10, 1893.

THE ICE-WALL ON THE BEACH AT HULL, MASSACHUSETTS, JANUARY, 1893.

BY J. B. WOODWORTH, SOMERVILLE, MASS. THE exceptionally long-continued cold of the early part of January, this year, favored the development of a considerable wall of coast-ice on the long barrier beach connecting the rocky headland of Nantasket with Strawberry Hill and the neighboring drumlin at Point Allerton at the entrance to Boston Harbor. the same time, the embayed waters of Boston Harbor froze over. I visited the beach at Hull on the 24th of the month, at a time the temperature had risen above the freezing point, and when the sheet ice had left the shore and was only visible as cakes floating near the horizon.

At

At Nantasket, from the vicinity of the cafes northward to near Point Allerton, the ice-wall formed a rampart near hightide mark of triangular cross-section, having an average elevation of about 8 feet and a breadth of base of 20 feet. The seaward slope of this wall was shorter and steeper than the landward, and was also much more irregular, owing to the action of the waves and some melting. The land ward slope merged into the sheet of snow back of the beach. The accompanying diagram will make clearer this description.

The wall was composed in part of cakes, but in larger measure of granular ice, making the whole a compact mass, whose front was broken at frequent intervals by recesses swept by the waves at high tide. The beginnings of these recesses were seen in numerous caverns at the bottom of the ice, some of which were large enough to permit a man to crawl under the arch, and in one case a breach had been made through to the beach in the rear of the wall. In another instance, where the crest of the wall was low, the arch was fissured, as shown in Fig. 2, apparently by the pressure of waves in passing through the tunnel.

FIG. 2.-Ice-arch fissured by wave-action.

From many of the small caves little streams were trickling out over the sand beach in front. These streams were busily employed at low tide in building and re-arranging small deltas of fine sand, a long stretch of which lay between high and low tidemarks.

The drainage of water produced by the superficial melting of the ice at mid-day was mainly in the form of drops from the protuberant masses one or two feet above the base, which was slightly receding, a feature determined by the water at high tide. These drops of water fell upon the wet sand of the beach and made well-marked pits, the cross-sections of some of which are shown in the adjoined Fig. 3. These pits were distributed along the front of the ice-wall just under the high-tide limit.

Some of these depressions resemble the so-called rain-drop imprints on the older strata, and serve to make us cautious in the interpretation of such markings. I have also seen the spray from surf, as on the beach at Gay Head, Mass., make similar impres

sions. The larger impressions at Hull were as much as three inches in diameter, but correspondingly shallow, while those which were in process of formation were not over half an inch across and half an inch deep. Around each pit, into which water was dropping, a rim of sand was raised. The larger pits, just described, were, except for what I am about to describe, without any signs of the cause of their formation. In several instances, however, I observed that water was dropping in a narrow, deep pit, formed exactly in the centre of one of the large shallow ones.

The explanation of these pits seems to be this. that, after the dropping has ceased for a time, as by the freezing of the surface of the ice-wall at night, the sands about the deep pits cave in, being highly mobile by reason of the water they contain. If now, on the next period of melting, drops of water drip from the same icicle-like projection of the ice-wall, a new, deep, but narrow pit will form in the place held by the old one. The geological interest of these pits is evident when we compare them with some of the pit-like depressions found in the Cambrian and other deposits of beach origin. The surface of the arenaceous slates of presumably Lower Cambrian age in Somerville, Mass., are marked with pits closely resembling many of these made by water falling from coast-ice. In fact, it would be difficult to distinguish them from the so-called genus of worm-burrows, Monocraterion, where the long tube penetrating the sand is obscure or wanting.

The strength of the waves applied to the face of this wall of ice can be estimated from the fact that a whale, about 40 feet long (Physeter macrocephalus), had been washed ashore abreast of Strawberry Hill, and lay with his head to the north, close up to the foot of the wall of ice, apparently in a position determined by the run of the shore-current during a "north-easter." The depth of water necessary to float this body in was in part obtained through the backing-up of the waves against the wall of ice. The effect of this action on the regimen of the beach was better shown on the bouldery pavement near Point Allerton.

Under the ordinary summer conditions of this beach, the swash of the surf advances up it as a thin sheet of foaming water, halts for an instant, and then recedes, to be overtaken by another wave. The ice-wall, however, at high-tide mark, or just below it, interferes with the action of the swash. The result is that the water is held up against the ice-wall, and when it recedes goes out as a deeper sheet than when the wave has a chance to run up the beach and spread out as a thin layer of water. This thin sheet of water cannot move the larger boulders except by removing the finer materials from their bases, but the thick sheet in front of the ice-wall acts more potently on the larger cobbles and boulders, dragging them up and down the beach, so that its aspect is for the time quite altered. To this action must be added the effect of cakes of ice, with inter-stratified layers of sand and gravel and occasionally included cobbles, which are left pell mell on the beach with the receding tide.

The larger beach pebbles, which have been reduced to the form of wear characteristic of their class, exhibit an interesting fact which should be noticed here. During the season of minimum wave-action, the pebbles are smoothed by attrition with the finer gravels and sands, which are alone in movement; but in the winter, during heavy storms, the pebbles and cobbles are dashed together, and their smooth surfaces scarred with dents. In the case of an elongate cylindrical pebble, it was very apparent from

the grayish pulverulent appearance of the extremities that the wear was greater on the ends than on the sides, though it should be remarked that this pebble was probably thrown sideways quite as frequently, if not more frequently, than endwise against its neighbors.

THE GENERIC EVOLUTION OF THE PALEOZOIC

BRACHIOPODA.

ENGLAND.

66

BY AGNES CRANE, BRIGHTON, IT is a time-honored saying that "a prophet is not without honor save in his own country," but the name and fame of Professor James Hall, LL.D., director of the State Museum of Natural History of New York, and its veteran State geologist, are well known in Canada and the United States and have long been recognized and appreciated among the geologists and invertebrate palæontologists of Europe. The highest recognition in geological circles was accorded him nearly a quarter of a century ago, when he was awarded the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London, the year after Barrande, and a year before Charles Darwin received it. His arduous life-long researches have resulted in the production of the fine series of monographs of The Palæontology of New York," of which Vol. VIII., Part I., Brachiopoda,' by James Hall, assisted by John M. Clarke, has recently made its appearance, with an unusually interesting text and the well-executed plates for which the series has been remarkable. As a fossil brachiopodist Professor Hall ranks with his eminent contemporaries, the late Dr. Thomas Davidson, F.R.S., and Joachim Barrande of Prague. In one respect he may be said to take higher position as a philosophical investigator, inasmuch that he kept free from prejudice with regard to the theory of evolution as applied to the class Brachiopoda at a time when, owing to the condition of our knowledge of the group, it was not possible to adduce actual proofs of the logical postulate in that direction.

2

Times and methods have changed indeed since the celebrated Bohemian palæontologist definitely proclaimed that the evidence of the Cephalopoda and of the Brachiopoda was opposed to the truth of the theory of evolution, and Dr. Davidson, in answer to a personal appeal from Darwin, replied that he was unable to detect direct evidence of the passage of one genus into another.* There has been a marked advance in the philosophical treatment of this important group of ancient and persistent organisms during the last decade, and to this progress American scientists have contributed largely. Mr. W. H. Dall has differentiated and described some new genera and species of the recent forms of interest and value. Professors Morse, Brooks, and Beyer, and of late Dr. Beecher and Mr. Clarke, have revealed suggestive phases in the developmental history of typical genera and wellknown species. Now Professor James Hall and Mr. J. M. Clarke have sifted and compared the vast accumulations of data recorded by earlier writers by the older methods of descriptive palæontology, and, combining the results thus gained with the best features of the new school of investigators, have effected a revolution in the general treatment of the entire class of Brachiopoda. They trace important stages in the phylogeny of the fossil forms and various links connecting them through their immediate successors with the surviving members of the group.

Much of this work could not possibly have been accomplished had it not been for the mass of descriptions and figures of the vast number of species recorded in the works of Barrande, Davidson, De Koninck, D'Orbigny, Defrance, Deslongchamps, Suess, Lindstrom, Pander, Quenstedt, Geinitz, Littell, Oppel, Oehlert, Waagen, and Neumayr, in Europe, and Billings, Hall, Clarke, Meek, Shumard, Worthen, Walcott, White, Whitfield, and others on the continent of America.

1 Natural History of New York. Paleontology, vol. vill. (Geological Survey of the State of New York), "An Introduction to the Study of the Genera of Paleozoic Brachiopoda." Part. I. By James Hall, State Geologist and Palæontologist, assisted by John M. Clarke. Albany, 1892.

2 Cephalopodes, Etudes Générales par Joachim Barrande, Prague, 1877, p. 224.

Brachiopodes, Etudes Locales, Ibid, 1879, p. 206.

"What is a Brachiopod?" by Thomas Davidson, F.R.S., Geological Magazine, Decade II., vol. iv., 1877.

The warm and discriminating recognition of the valued labors of his European fellow-workers is one of the most agreeable features of Professor Hall's new volume. It is pleasant to read "of the greatest of all works on the Brachiopoda by Thomas Davidson," of the just appreciation of Barrande's herculean efforts in the Silurian field, of the excellence of William King's anatomical investigations, to find Pander's early work valued and his names restored. These are just and generous tributes to the memory of comrades who have gone before most welcome in these latter days of that strident "individualism" which is often mere egotism in disguise.

The New York palæontologist's recent work is not only a critical résumé with descriptions and figures of the Brachiopoda of New York, but a careful analysis of the results of the labors of his predecessors and contemporaries in the same extended palæozoic field of research in the United States, Canada, Russia, Sweden, and Great Britain. This gives it a cosmopolitan value, and affords opportunity, by means of critical comparisons of genera, species, and varieties from the geological horizons of both hemispheres, to recognize the identity of species, to define synonyms, to collate genera and sub-genera, to indicate their inter-relationships, and to illustrate the passage-forms linking one group, or assemblage of allied genera, to another. To this branch of the subject we must now restrict our observations.

With singular modesty the authors refrain, for the present, from proposing any new scheme of classification. The primary division of the class into two orders comprising the non-articulated and articulated genera is adopted. We fail to see why Owen's names of Lyopomata, or "loose valves," and Arthropomata, or "jointed valves," should have been discarded, for they define the same limits and distinctions as Huxley's simpler, but later, names, Articulata and Inarticulata, the first of which was employed by Deshayes to designate certain forms of Brachiopoda before the publicatian of Huxley's "Introduction to the Classification of Animals." In England it is generally conceded that the priority and scope of Owen's orders were clearly established by the American systematist, Dr. Theodore Gill. The matter, however, is of less moment now that a general tendency to admit greater ordinal sub-division has arisen. Waagen has proposed six orders, Neumayr eight, and Beecher four, based on the peduncular opening and associated characters.

The names Inarticulata and Articulata express certain general distinctions. Nevertheless, it is a matter of fact that forms have often appeared which cannot be separated thus, for tendencies to transgress these artificial limits become apparent in various directions. For instance, the species of the Silurian genus Trimerella was shown by Davidson and King to be but feebly articulated, and now Neobolus, Spondylobolus, and Hall's new linguloid genus, Barroisella, are shown to exhibit the same propensity. We are glad to note that, although fifteen years have elapsed since the publication of the Memoir on the Trimerellidæ, by Thomas Davidson and William King," it is frankly admitted that later observations have hitherto added comparatively little to the results achieved by those eminent investigators and have taken away nothing from their value.

In the present publication the semi-artificial, but convenient, family designations are not adopted, but the genera discussed fall into groups of associated genera, often exhibiting intermediate characters, which link one genus naturally with another. More has been accomplished in this direction than could possibly have been anticipated, and the eighth volume of the Geological Survey of the State of New York (Paleontology) would have made glad the heart of Darwin, for its dominant note is the evolution of genera.

Hitherto Lingula has always been regarded as taxonomically at the base of the Brachiopoda in spite of the acknowledged complexity of its muscular system and the date of its appearance in the geological series. It is now shown conclusively to be developed from an obolelloid type which culminated in a faunal epoch anterior to the appearance of Lingula, and Brook's history of the development of the living species is cited as confirmatory proof 6 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. xxx., p. 124, 1874.

of the direct obolelloid derivation of the paleozoic Lingulæ from Obolella. Lingulella and Lingulepis, forerunners of Lingula, may be found to be important connecting links, having the outward form of linguloids with the muscular arrangements and narrow pedicle slit of the obolelloids. The development on the linguloid line has continued, as we believe, from early Silurian to the present time with frequent modifications. From Lingula we may depart in many directions. In Lingulops and Lingulasma we get indications of physiological influences on the origin of genera."

It appears that "augmented muscular energy and concomitant increased secretion of muscular fulcra" with the large size and consequent displacement of the liver induced the thickening of the entire area of muscular implantation. Gradual excavation of this solid plate ensued, and the formation of a more or less vaulted platform, extremely developed, in the feebly articulated Trimerellids of those Silurian seas, which favored the rapid development of the platform-bearing Brachiopoda, a race which was abruptly exterminated at the close of the Niagara and Wenlock period. Hall's new genus, Barroisella, is a divergent so marked by the development of deltidial callosities as to indicate their approximating specialization for articulating and interlocking purposes. Thus we get most striking evidence of a tendency to span the interval between the so-called edentulous Inarticulata and the articulated genera in the Linguloid and Trimerelloid groups.

The genus Obolus is shown to be more specialized than Obolella, less so than Lingula, Neobolus being an intermediate form with cardinal processes, also indicative of progress in this direction towards the Articulata. In Obolus, however, the muscular scars are excavated as in Lingula, not elevated as in the forms tending to Trimerella. Thus we get indications in the history of the ancestral Trimerellids of the attainment of a like remarkable resultant along distinct lines of development, of which another instance has been furnished by Messrs. Fischer and Oehlert's recent studies of the development of the living Magellance of the boreal and austral oceans, to which we had elsewhere occasion tɔrefer.1 As Hall and Clarke's generalizations are formulated with a due regard to geological sequence, they possess more validity than the phylogenetic deductions enunciated by a Teutonic palæontologist, in which that important factor was somewhat neglected.' "We have yet to seek," the American brachiopodists conclude, "the source whence these numerous closely allied primoidial groups are derived, in some earlier comprehensive stock of which we have yet no knowledge. The ages preceding the Silurian afforded abundant time for a tendency to variability to express itself" (p 168).

From this satisfactory discussion of the origin and developwent of the paleozoic unarticulated genera and species, Hall and Clarke proceed to consider the structure and relations of the far more numerous and more complicated order of the articulated species, and commence with the Orthoids, the lowest forms of the Articulata, as, by common consent, they are now regarded. The allied Strophomenoid, Streptorhynchoid, and Leptaenoids, as defined by Dalman, are then treated of and the first part terminates with a discussion of some carboniferous Productoids. The spirebearers, Rhynchonelloids and Terebratuloids, of the Paleozoic seas are thus left for the concluding volume, when we may look for a valuable general summary of results and for that systematic classification, based on their completed investigations, which the authors are bound to propose in the interest of students for the root, stem, branches, and twigs of the genealogical tree of the Brachiopoda, as they have definitely abandoned the family names hitherto in vogue. It must certainly be admitted that brachiopodists have often found it difficult, and sometimes impossible, to determine to which of two well characterized families certain annectent forms should be definitely referred.

In Europe, however, the retention of family designations is not always considered incompatible with the modern philosophical and evolutional methods of class treatment. They have been

1 On the Distribution and Generic Evolution of Some Recent Brachiopoda, By Agnes Crane, Natural Science, January, 1893.

2 Neumayr, "Die Stämme des Thierreichs Brachiopoda," 1890.

preserved with advantage; for instance, in Mr. A. Smith Woodward's masterly systematic classification of the fossil fishes in the British Museum, and also in Professor W. A. Herdman's exhaustive report on the Tunicata dredged by the "Challenger" expedition, associated in this case with evolutional data and the presentation of numerous phylums showing the inter-relations of genera, somewhat after the same plan as that adopted in the "Introduction to the Study of the Paleozoic Genera of Brachiopoda." With all due respect to the veteran of the old school and the disciple of the new, we venture to submit the impossibility of impressing on the mental retina a permanent photograph of the innumerable and fascinating phylums which they have provided with such industrious research. But we are not all endowed with so much insight, knowledge, and experience.

The most revolutionary feature in the present instalment of their researches on the Articulata is the extreme sub-division to which the great group of Orthoids has been subjected. The genus Orthis is absolutely restricted to eight species (instead of two hundred). with O. callactis of Dalman as the type, and his early figures and original descriptions are judiciously reproduced for the benefit of American students. The remainder of the large number of species are placed under various new genera and subgenera, or restored to their former appellations. For instance, Pander's name, Clitambonites, is once more applied to species unjustly usurped by D'Orbigny's Orthisina, and Plectambonites of the same Russian palæontologist is restored for the Palæozoic species grouped by the French conchologists and those who followed them under the genus Leptaena of authors not of Dalman. The Leptaena rugosa of this author is taken as the type of his genus, the scope of which is thus much restricted, and new generic names are proposed for several of the species indifferently described as Strophomenas or Leptaenas by various authors. Linné's sub-genus Bilobites is revived for those abnormal bilobed species of Orthis, which, according to Dr. Beecher's investigations, originated from a normal form at the adolescent and mature stages of growth in both direct and indirect lines of development. In view of the extensive breaking-up of the Orthoids, here proposed, into several genera and sub-genera, we are willing to confess that to object to the revival of Bilobites would be but straining at a gnat and swallowing the camel. We, however, admit a preference for those among the proposed new or restored designations which give some indications of the former position of the species among genera. Such are Protorthis, Plectorthis, Heterorthis, Orthostrophia, Platystrophia, and so on. Orthidium for the generic divergent nearest allied to Strophomena seems a less happy selection. Tabular views, both instructive and suggestive, are given to show the approximate range in the geological horizons from the calciferous shales of the Lower Silurian to the Upper Coal Measures which indicate the appearance, persistence, and extinction of the various genera into which, under new, old, or restored appellations, the Orthoids, Strophomenoids, and Leptaenoids are sub-divided a sub-division which, with its asso

ciated shifting of types, will not escape criticism. There will always be differences of opinion respecting generic values. Here, as Heckel long ago pointed out, the personal equation becomes prominent. We believe Professor Cope was

the first to advance the then heterodox view that species could be transferred from one genus to another without affecting their specific characters. Many so termed genera represent what have now become abbreviated transitional phases in the development of the race which, of old time, became stereotyped for periods of longer or shorter geological duration. The researches of Friele and Oehlert on the recent Magellanæ (Waldhumia) the ultimate phase of development of the long-looped branch of the Terebratuloids, illustrate this point most clearly. If the inter-relationships and passages of these generic phases are carefully noted, they become so many illustrations of one method of the evolution of genera, which, sometimes, it is evident, originated from causes incidental to individual development, accelerated growth, and the circumstances of the environment.

A Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes in the British Museum, Part I., 1889; Part II., 1890. 4 Reports of the "Challenger" Expedition: Tunicata, vols. vi., xiv., and xxvi.