[ix]

CONTENTS

OF

LETTERS on the Study and use of Ancient and Modern History: con
taining observations and reflections on the causes and consequences of
those events which have produced conspicuous changes in the aspect
of the world, and the general state of human affairs.

BY JOHN BIGLAND
Author of

REFLECTIONS ON THE RESURRECTION AND ASCENSION."

.....Her ample page

Rich with the spoils of Time.

LETTER I.

GRAY.

CURIOSITY natural to man: importance of giving it a proper di-

rection.-Reading and conversation necessary for acquiring a know-

ledge of mankind.-Difference between poetry, romance, and history;

preference due to the latter.-General observations on the nature and

use of history.-Neglect of the ancient historians relative to the most

important matters: the progress of arts, sciences, literature, com-

merce, &c.

LETTER II.

17-25

Whether the study of history leave a tendency to instil a love of war:

the reasons why it may sometimes have that effect on youthful minds.

26-34

LETTER III.

The use of historical knowledge in eradicating narrow and illiberal pre-

judices, by displaying the influence of systems, and establishing opi-

nions on the human mind.

LETTER IV.

34-38

Innumerable advantages resulting from the study of history: difficulty of

discriminating between truth and fiction: the means to be used for that

purpose: remarks on the historical writings of the Greeks and Ro-

mans.-Remarks on ecclesiastical history: circumstance which ought

to be considered in estimating the probability of facts, and the gener-

al authenticity of historical information.
38-45

LETTER V.

Necessity of strict attention to geography and chronology, in reading

history: geographical errors more easily corrected than historical mis-

takes and misrepresentations.-An attention to geography and chro-

nology extremely conducive to the easy retention as well as the per-

fect understanding, of historical information.
46-52

LETTER VI.

The knowledge of history and geography essential to liberal education.-

The minute details of history neither possible nor necessary to be kept,

in the memory: a general view of history necessary to be impressed

on the mind: the great outlines, leading facts, and important events

easy to be retained in the memory.
52-55

LETTER VII.

A general view of the history of mankind: on the primeval ages: the

period fixed for the commencement of profane history.-General view

B

of the scriptural history: philosophical conjectures on the creation

The Mosaical account of the creation, perfectly consistent with the

known principles of natural philosophy: the consistency of the six days

work of creation, according to the Mosaic representation with those

principles, concisely examined and explained. The books containing

the scriptural history distinctly considered: occasional errors in the

scriptural history, imply no impeachment of their general authenticity,

and afford no solid argument against the Divine authority of the Chris-

tian religion.

LETTER IX.*

55-66

'The view of scriptural history continued: and particular remarks on the

relation of Nebuchadnezzar's insanity.
66-78

LETTER X.

General view of mankind during the period of time included in the sacred

history: the state of learning and commerce among the Jews, Egyp-

tians, Tyrians, &c.: general remarks on the Egyptians and Babyloni-

ans: origin of Zabaism, or the worship of the celestial bodies in Baby-

lon.-Origin of judicial astrology at Babylon: the groundless futility

of that science; its consistency with the ideas of the Babylonians: and

its inconsistency with natural philosophy: its extensive spread and long

continued influence on the human mind.-Degeneracy of Zabaism into

idolatry at Babylon.-Obscurity of the Assyrian and Babylonian his-

tory. Some conjectures on the national genius of the Babylonians.-

Description of the observatory and tower of Belus.-Description of Ba-

bylon. Observations on the advantages resulting from the open and

rural plan of Babylon.-Degeneracy of the Babylonians after the death

of Nebuchadnezzar.-Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus.-General aspect

of the world in the time of the Babylonian empire.-Foundation of

Rome. Primitive state of Rome.
78-111

LETTER XI.

State of the Persian Monarchy: invasion of Greece by Darius Hystas-

pes; by Xerxes; retreat of Xerxes; defeat of Mardonius at Platea.-

Subsequent affairs of Greece and Persia: elevation and character of

Philip, king of Macedonia; his preparations for the Persian war;

his tragical death. Observations on the general aspect and importance

of the wars between the Greeks and Persians.-Alexander's political

and military character; undertakes the war; the foundation of Alexan-

dria; his death at Babylon.-General observations on the progress of

arts, sciences, literature, &c. among the Persians, Egyptians, Jews,

and Greeks, during the period which elapsed between the conquest of

Babylon by Cyrus, and that of the Persian empire by Alexander; with

the state of Rome during the above period.-Savage state of Europe

in those ages; with general reflections on the vicissitudes of sublunary

things, and the wonderful scheme of Divine Providence. 111-139

LETTER XII.

The consequences which followed Alexander's death: dissentions and
the tragical fate of the Macedonian generals the effect of the con-
quest of Persia considered.-Establishment of the Greek kingdom of
Egypt by Ptolomy Lagus: Alexandria made the capital: foundation
of the Alexandrian library by Ptolomy Philadelphus; and the Septu-
agint translation of the scriptures by his order.-Affairs of the Jews:
establishment of the Asmonean kingdont of the Jews: the subversion
of that monarchy by the Romans; and its reinstatement in the family
of Herod the Great; final reduction of Judea to a Roman province.
Gradual, but slow advancement of the Roman power: small extent of
the Roman territory: general manners of the first Romans: examina-
tion of Hannibal's conduct in not besieging Rome after the battle of

IX, instead of VIII, appears a mistake of the Author, or English printer.

Canna: rapid aggrandizement of Rome after the conquest of Cam

thage: her intestine commotions, originating from the opposite factions

of patricians and plebians, which ended in the extinction of the republi-

can system of governinent.-Establishment of the imperial government

of Rome.-General aspect of the Roman empire: unhappy state of the

Romans under the republican system; and examination of what was

falsely called Roman liberty.-General state of society among the Ro-

mans: examination of the question whether Rome ever grew more

wealthy than in the reign of Augustus: progress of science and litera

ture among the Romans during the republican government.-Asiatic

luxury introduced into Rome. The powerful effects of ancient clo

quence considered, and the causes of its force. in moving the passions,

investigated. View of the state of slavery among the ancients; especi-

ally the Romans; with the causes of its existence, and the gradual

amelioration of that unhappy state; with the causes of that ameliora

tion.-Reflections on the inhumanity of the Romans to their prisoners

of war.-View of the state of the human mind, in regard to its religious

ideas, previous to the promulgation of Christianity: systems of the

philosophers: popular opinions of the phi osophers concerning mediato-

rial and subordinate divinities, and a future state: origin of Polytheism;

mythologies of the Greeks and Romans; origin of idol worship: ne-

cessity of a divine revelation.-Promulgation of Christianity; reasons

of its rejection by the Jews; its progress among the Gentiles; proofs

of its divine authority, exhibited to the Gentiles of that and the suc-

cceding ages, in the final destruction of the city and temple of Jerusa-

lem, and the final dispersion of the Jews.
139-212

LETTER XIII.

View of the Roman empire: summary of the most remarkable occur-

rences under the imperial government; political system of the impe-

rial more pacific than that of the republican government; advantages

of an extensive monarchy; its subjects more happy than those of pet-

ty states: monarchy preferable to republicanism: the Romans more

happy under the imperial than under the republican government.-Ir-

ruptions of the Quadi, Altemanni, Goths, &c. into the empire; un-

prosperous reign of Gallienus; the barbarians repulsed, and the empire

restored to its former splendour by Claudius, Probus, Aurelianus, &c.—

Division of the empire by Dioclesianus, Maximianus, &c.; plan of

that division: elevation of Constantine to the undivided sovereignty-

View of the Roman constitution under the imperial government: mili-

tary systems under the Emperors: pay and privileges of the legionary

soldiers: establishment of the famous corps of Prætorian guards, their

pay, &c. their number, their final abolition.-Increase of luxury and

embellishment of the city of Rome under the Emperors; dress, amuse-

ments, &c. of the Romans; decline of Roman literature during that

period Amelioration of the condition of slaves under the imperial go-

vernment; persecutions of the Christians under the imperial govern-

ment: investigation of the real causes from whence those persecutions

originated; exculpation of the emperors; cessation of persecution at

the elevation of Constantine.
212-248

LETTER XIV.

The reign of Constantine, an important and interesting period in the his-

tory of the world; its influence in succeeding ages; general view of

the remarkable, political, and military occurrences of this reign-In-

vestigation of the motives which induced Constantine to embrace and

establish the Christian religion: the ground of Mr. Gibbon's suspicions

examined critical enquiry concerning the authenticity of Constan-

tine's celebrated vision: arguments adduced, which tend to invalidate

the truth of the fact: other arguments equally weighty, which corro-

borate it.
249-269

LETTER XV.

State of religion during the reign of Constantine; o igin of the differences

of opinion among Christians; Council of Nice: persecution of the

Arians. Building of Constantinople, and removal of the seat of em-

pire; the reasons of that transaction examined situation of Constan-

tinople, far preferable to that or Rome: some remarks on the situation

of Constantinople, in regard to commercial advantages and disadvan-

tages. Consequences of the removal of the imperial residence ex-

amined those consequences often misrepresented by historians.-Do-

mestic infelicity of Constantine; and reflections on the domestic un-

happiness of many who have enjoyed the greatest degree of prosperity

in their public concerns.
270---292

:

LETTER XVI.

Critical enquiry into the state of ancient Rome, in regard to extent,

wealth, and population: number of habitations in Rome in the reign

of Theodosius: remarks on a note in a popular Treatise of Geography:

comparison of Babylon, Rome, and London, in regard to extent and

population: London, a commercial city, Rome not commercial; dis-

criminating circumstance in their mode of supplies: remarks on the

common estimates of the poulation of Constantinople, Cairo, Pekin,

Moscow, and Petersburgh, as commonly given in our geographical

books.
292---302

LETTER XVII.

Political state of the Roman empire, from the death of Constantine to

its final subversion by the northern nations; remarks on the death of

Julian; admission of the Goths into the empire by Valens: conse-

quences of that step: defeat and tragical death of Valens: reign of

Theodosius: final division of the empire; consequences of that divi-

sion; irruption of the nothern nations: sack of Rome by Atarie :

sanguinary reign of Attila: total subversion of the western empire:

investigation of the causes which brought about the subversion of the

empire; view of the state of the northern nations; of the means where-

by the vast population of civilized nations is supported; these means

shewn to be wanting in those which are uncivilized; conjectures on

the general state of the empire, and on that of the imperial city, pre-

vious to its final overthrow.
303---324

LETTER XVIII.

State of religion after the death of Constantine: Arianism triumphant at

Constantinople, and in most parts of the east, until the reign of Theo-

dos us: triumph of the orthodox party: general council of Constan-

tinople; Gregory Nazianzen, John Chrysostome: suppression of A-

rianism in the Roman empire: total abolition of Paganism by Theo-

dosius; Arianism the religion of the Goths at that period: division of

the Christian world into two great parties, the Orthodox and the Ari-

ans. Origin of monastic institutions; their advantages and disadvan-

tages considered in a religious and political point of view; probability

of their pproaching abolition in all countries; good effects of them

in the gothic ages.
324---338

LETTER XIX.

State of Europe after the subversion of the empire; origin of the French
monarchy: Establishment of the Saxons in Britain: Gothic kingdom
of Italy: conquest of Italy by Bellisarius and Narses; reign of Justinian;
his prosperity; his character; comparison of his fortune with that of
many others of the most prosperous princes; his superiority of good
fortune above that of any other characters of Bellisarius and Narses:
state of the eastern empire in the reign of Justinian.-State of the eas-
tern empire after the death of Justinian; destructive war between that
empire and Persia: remarkable events of that war: general aspect

:

of the world at that period.-Origin of Mahometanism: policy of

Mahomet plan and principles of Mahomet's systems; extraordinry

'success of Mahomet and his successors, in consequence of the two em-

pires of Constantinople and Persia being exhausted and debilitated by

their mutual efforts against each other: remarks on the destruction of

the Alexandrian library: conquests of the Mahometan Caliphs; their

military successes more wonderful than those of Alexander; investiga-

tion of the causes to which those successes are to be ascribed.-Political

system of the empire of the Caliphs: some conjectures on the settle-

ments of the Arabs, in the peninsula of India and the oriental

islands.
339---370

LETTER XX.

Sketch of the genius and manners of the Arabs or Saracens: progress of

science and literature under the Caliphate; striking difference between

their literature and scientific pursuits and those of the Greeks and Ro-

mans commerce of those ages-General aspect of the world; of

Europe; of the eastern empire; of the Caliphate; wars between the

two latter; invention of the Greek fire; its effects.-State of the

Christian church: conversion of the Trian nations: introduction of

images into churches: causes to which their introduction may by as-

cribed fatal consequences resulting from that circumstance: rupture

between the Greek and Latin churches on that subject: second council

of Constantinople; second council of Nice.-View of Europe during

the abovementioned period: elevation of Pepin and Charlemagne : es-

tablishment of the western or German empire: efforts of Charlemagne

for the restoration of learning.-Dismemberment of the empire of

Charlemagne rapid growth of the feudel system; remarks on that sys-

tem: origin of the Germanic constitution.-Dismemberment of the

Caliphate state of the eastern empire: origin and frequency of pilgri

mages to Jerusalem; origin of the crusades: general view of those reli-

gious wars conquest of Jerusalem: establishment and overthrow of

the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem: capture of Constantinople, and

subversion of that empire by the French and Venetian crusaders; im-

mense booty establishment of the Latin empire of Constantinople, and

of the Greek empire of Nice; recovery of Constantinople by the

Greeks, and subversion of the Latin empire.-Effects of the crusades:

gradual abolition of the feudal system: general remarks.-Exorbitant

elevation of the church; of the Papal See: animosity between the

Greek and Latin churches; attempts for their reconciliation; causes of

the animosity between the two churches investigated-Great schism

of the Latin church; enquiry into the causes of the extraordinary eleva-

tion of the church, and of the Papal power.-State of Europe after the

crusades; state of the eastern empire, and of Byzantine learning: first

historical intelligence of the Russian empire; revival of learning, and

of the arts in Europe: state of the city of Constantinople; of London;

and other European capitals: imperial palace of Constantinople.-Con-

quests of the Tartars under Genghis Khan and his successors, nd under

Tamerlane; declining state of the empire of Constantinople: capture of

that city by the Turks.-Effects of the capture of Constantinople on Eu-

ropean literature introduction of the st dy of the Greek language into

Europe.
370---428

:

LETTER XXI.

Rapid progress of literature and the arts in Europe; invention of printing;
incalculable benefits arising from that discovery: rapid improvement of
commerce; voyages of discovery made by the Portuguese; discovery
of the passage to India by the Portuguese; state of the India trade pre-
vious to that event discovery of America: conquest of Mexico
and Peru by the Spaniards: general remarks.-Origin of the negro