THE ANGLO-SAXON MODES.

333. The Anglo-Saxon has four modes of the verb, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, for which there were corresponding inflections.

Indef.

Perf.

Hi luf-ias.

Lufa pu, love thou. Luf-ian or -igean, to love.

Luf-iað ge, love ye. Tó luf-ienne, -igenne, to love. Luf-iende, loving. Luf-od, loved.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODES.

334. In English, the distinction between the modes, so far as inflection is concerned, is very slight. The only true subjunctive inflection is that of were and wert, as opposed to the indicative forms was and wast. See § 347. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is characterized by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to is, in the sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. The distinction between the subjunctive forms and the indicative, however desirable it may be to retain it, is likely to pass away.

Between the second person singular imperative, speak, and the second person singular indicative, speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form speak is distinguished from the indicative form speakest by the negation of a character rather than by the assuming of one, it can not be said, on the ground of inflection, that there is in English an imperative mode. The Anglo-Saxon has distinct forms for the imperative; the English has not.

It is questionable whether any thing has been gained to the language by the introduction of the potential mode. It has taken its place extensively in English grammar as one of the forms of the verb. Still, it should be remembered that, in the language of LoWTH, the mere expression of will, possibility, liberty, obligation, belong to the indicative mode, just as all direct assertion belongs to that mode. In the forms of expression I can go, we may ride, he

must obey, I, we, and he are respectively nominative ɩo can, may, and must, which govern go, ride, and obey in the infinitive mode. See 349. In expressions like "if I should go," "if I may ride," we have the potential form (or indicative) under a condition=the subjunctive mode.

Instead of the terms Subjunctive and Potential, it has been proposed by some grammarians, as simplifying the subject, to substitute for them both the term Conjunctive, to designate the two methods of connecting sentences. Thus, when an uncertain sentence is connected with a certain sentence, If it rain, I shall not go, and when two uncertain sentences are connected together, If it rain, 1 may not go, the term conjunctive is applied to each of the three uncertain sentences, instead of the term subjunctive to the first two, and the term potential to the last, I may not go. According to this view, the indicative asserts simply; the conjunctive asserts with modifications. The appropriateness of the term conjunctive is derived from the circumstance that the contingency is usually marked by a conjunction (such as if, though, that, except, until), which connects the dependent sentence with its principal.

INFLECTION OF THE

INFINITIVE MODE.

335. The Inflection of the verb in its impersonal or infinitive form anciently consisted, in full, of three cases: a Nominative (or Accusative), a Dative, and a Genitive. The genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the Gothic language is the least constant. I. In Anglo-Saxon, the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an:

The -en, in words like strengthen, is a derivational termination, and not a representation of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection is lost in the present English, except in certain provincial dialects.

II. In Anglo-Saxon, the dative of the infinitive verb ended in -nne, and was (as a matter of syntax) generally, perhaps always, preceded by the preposition to:

With these preliminaries, we can take a clear view of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and are referable to a double origin:

1. The Independent form.

This is used after the words can, may,

will, and some others; as, I can speak; I may go; I shall come; 1 Here there is no preposition, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -an.

will move.

2. The Prepositional form. This is used after the majority of English verbs; as, I wish to speak; I mean to go; I intend to come; I determine to move. Here we have the preposition to, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -nne. err error, to forgive forgiveness, in lines like

Expressions like to

"To err is human; to forgive, divine!"

are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a nominative case having grown, not only out of a dative, but out of a dative plus its governing preposition.-LATHAM's English Language.

THE NUMBER OF MODES.

§ 336. Not only languages differ as to the number of modes which, by general consent, are attributed to them, but grammarians differ as to the number of modes which should be attributed to the same language. As modes represent the conceptions and affections of the mind, they might be as varied and extended as those affections. There might be the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Optative, the Imperative, Infinitive, Vocative, Precative, Interrogative, Causal, Reflective, &c. Modes are defined by PRISCIAN, "Modi sunt diversæ inclinationes animi, quas variæ consequuntur declinationes verbi." Modes represent the different feelings of the mind, to which feelings the varied inflections of the verb are adapted. It is said that the Arabic has thirteen modes, the Russian seven, the Sanscrit six, the Anglo-Saxon four, the same number which some of the most respectable grammarians have assigned to the English as received by inheritance from the mother tongue. See § 332.

§ 337. A PARTICIPLE is a verbal adjective, differing from other adjectives by carrying with it the idea of time. It is so called from the Latin particeps, partaking, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and the adjective.

There are two participles; the Present, called, also, the Imperfect or the Active Participle; as, Loving; and the Past, called, also, the Perfect or Passive Participle; as, Loved, written. Besides these, there are certain forms called Compound Participles; as, Being loved; having loved; having been loved. The last two forms are

often called the COMPOUND PERFECT. In Anglo-Saxon, the participle, like the adjective, was declined; in English, like the adjective, it is not declined.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

§ 338. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE ends in -ing, and expresses the continuance of an action, state, or being; as, He was loving; they were sleeping.

1. In Anglo-Saxon the forms are -and and -ande; as, Bindand, bindande binding. Like the Latin participle in -ns, it was originally declined. In all the Norse languages, ancient and modern, the -d is preserved. In some of the modern provincial dialects of England, strikand and goand are said for striking and going. In the Scotch of the modern writers we find the form in :

"The rising sun o'er Galston muirs

Wi' glorious light was glintin;

The hares were hirplin down the furs=(furrows)
The lav'rocks they were chantin.”—Burns.

2. This participle often has the nature of an adjective; as, A loving friend. It also becomes an adverb by receiving the termination ly; as, Lovingly; and admits of comparison; as, More lovingly, most lovingly.

3. This participle also becomes a noun, and admits the articles; as, "The burning of London in 1666." "There was a leaning to popery." In this capacity it takes the plural form; as, "The overflowings of the Nile."

e.

4. "It is to be observed, also, that in English there are two infinitives: one in ing, the same in sound and spelling as the participle present, from which, however, it should be carefully distinguished; · g.,‘Rising early is healthful,' and 'It is healthful to rise early,' are equivalent. Grammarians have produced much needless perplexity by speaking of the participle in 'ing' being employed so and so, when it is manifest that that very employment of the word constitutes it, to all intents and purposes, an infinitive, and not a participle. The advantage of the infinitive in ing is that it may be used either in the nominative or in any oblique case; not, as some suppose, that it necessarily implies a habit; e. g., 'Seeing is believing;' 'There is glory in dying for one's country.'

While WHATELY thus proposes to class the present participle with the infinitive mode, KÜHNER, in his Greek Grammar, classes the infinitive mode with the participles. In the present state of philology, the common classification may be conveniently adhered to.

THE PAST PARTICIPLE.

§ 339. The PAST PARTICIPLE, called, also, the perfect, or the passive participle, has different terminations, according as it comes from the ancient or strong conjugation, or the modern or weak conjugation. For the meaning of the terms strong and weak, see § 348.

I. The participle in -en; as, Spoken. In the Anglo-Saxon, the participle formed from verbs in the ancient strong conjugation always ended in -en; as, Bunden. In English, this -en is often wanting; as, Bound; the word bounden being antiquated. Words, when the -en is wanting, may be viewed under two aspects: 1. They may be looked upon as participles that have lost their termination; 2. They may be considered as preterits with a participial sense.

1. In all words in which the vowel of the plural differs from that of the singular in Anglo-Saxon, the participle takes the plural form ; as, Drank, drunk, drunken. See § 324. To say I have drunk is to use an ambiguous expression, since drunk may be a participle minus its termination, or a preterit with a participial sense. To say I have drank, is to use a preterit for a participle. To say I have drunken is to use an unexceptionable form.

In all words with a double form, as spake and spoke, brake and broke, the participle follows the form in o; as, Spoken, broken. Spaken, braken, are forms not in the language. There are degrees of laxity, and to say the spear is broke is better than to say the spear is brake.

2. These two statements bear upon the future history of the preterit. That of the two forms sang and sung, one will, in the course of long usage, become obsolete, is nearly certain; and as the plural form is also that of the participle, it is the plural form that is most likely to be the surviving one.

3. As a general rule, we find the participle in -en wherever the preterit is strong; indeed, the participle in -en may be considered the strong participle, or the participle of the strong conjugation. Still, the two forms do not always coincide. In mow, mowed, mown ; sow, sowed, sown, and several other words, we find the participle strong and the preterit weak.

II. The participle in -d, -t, or -ed; as, Loved, left, looked. In Anglo-Saxon, it differed in form from the preterit, inasmuch as it ended in -ed or -t, whereas the preterit ended in -ode, -de, or -te; as, Lufode, bærnde, dypte, preterits; Gelufod, bærned, dypt, participles.