water, the vessel would weigh no heavier than before. Some of them learnedly discussed the question, broaching several theories respecting the properties of water and air, the phenomena of life, &c. At last the king said to one who had not previously spoken on the subject, Well, doctor, how do you account for this? He replied, Before I assign any cause for it, I should like to ascertain the fact: suppose we make the experiment. A vessel of water was accordingly brought in and weighed; a live fish was then put into the water: and behold, the weight of the vessel was increased by precisely the weight of the fish.

To form theories without investigating the facts was the method of the Aristotelian Philosophy. To ascertain the facts first by experiment was the method introduced and recommended by Lord Bacon.

5. The sciences of medicine, politics, and political economy, are partly physical, partly moral. You maintain your health by wholesome diet, pure air, early rising, occupation, and exercise. These are physical causes. It is also maintained by the discipline of the mind, and the government of the passions. These are moral causes.

Under the head of physical causes and effects we include those which refer to living animals. Our knowledge here is derived from observation. But still there is much room for reasoning. We may inflate a balloon with certainty whenever we please; but we cannot with equal certainty fatten an ox. There is an art in this. Some kinds of cattle will fatten sooner than others; and some kinds of food will produce fat sooner than others. To ascertain the cheapest and best modes of fattening, we must have recourse to experiments. The results of such experiments are exhibited at the agricultural shows. We sometimes read in the public papers complaints against the excessive fattening of cattle, inasmuch as these cattle become unfit for food. We think these complaints have no solid foundation. The cattle are not fattened for food; they are fattened to teach the art of fattening: And whether these few cattle thus fattened to excess should be eaten or not, is a matter of little importance, as compared with the practical knowledge which by this means the agriculturist may be able to obtain.

The human body is an animal.

But from its union to mind it is less than other animals under the control of physical agencies. We cannot fatten a man with as much certainty as we can fatten an ox. A tradesman on the verge of bankruptcy, a lady languishing with a broken heart, would from anxiety of mind baffle all attempts to make them fat. But when the mind is unoccupied, the body will yield to physical treatment. Pugilists and pedestrians undergo a course of training previous to their performances. By a regular course of diet and exercise, strength and agility are greatly increased.

The science of medicine is founded on experiments. What effect any substance taken into the stomach would produce generally upon the body could only be known at first by making the trial. But in the use of new medicines, and in the application of medicines generally to different constitutions, there is much need of sound reasoning. But after all, the result is the only test of medical skill. The surest proof of good treatment is the recovery of the patient.

Homœopathy must likewise be tested by experiments. The homeopathists contend that every disease has a specific remedy. This remedy will cure the disease with as much certainty as bark cures ague or as acids cure scurvy. They say they have discovered all these specifie remedies. This is the fundamental principle of the system. The doctrine of small doses is subordinate. They say that by trituration the power of medicines is so much increased, that a small dose will have a greater effect than a larger dose which has not undergone this operation. These are the two main principles of homoeopathy. Their truth must be proved by experiment, not by reasoning. But reasoning may be useful in deciding on the best ways of making the experiments.

The relation between physical causes and effects is first proved by observation and experiment. Having ascertained this, we employ reasoning for the purpose of applying this knowledge to a practical purpose. For instance, we ascertain, not by reasoning, but by experiment or observation, that fire will turn water into steam; and then by reasoning we apply that steam to work an engine.

SECTION V.

THE RELATION OF CAUSE AND EFFECT-MORAL CAUSES.

WHILE physical causes refer to the operations of matter, moral causes refer to the operations of mind. The former relate to the sciences of chemistry, geology, astronomy and other physical sciences. The latter relate to moral philosophy, political economy, and those other sciences that relate to the acts and habits of intelligent beings. We trace the operations of these causes, with reference to individuals, families, and nations.

1. The following are examples of moral causes and effects:

"Who hath woe? Who hath sorrow?

Who hath contentions? Who hath babbling?

Who hath wounds without cause? Who hath redness of eyes? They that tarry long at the wine;

They that, go to seek mixed wine."-Prov. xxiii. 29, 30.

Certainly," says Sydney Smith, "the two human beings who have had the greatest influence upon the understandings of mankind have been Aristotle and Lord Bacon. To Lord Bacon we are indebted for an almost daily extension of our knowledge of the laws of nature in the outward world; and the same modest and cautious spirit of inquiry, extended to moral philosophy, will probably at last give us clear, intelligible ideas of our spiritual nature. Every succeeding year is an additional confirmation to us that we are travelling in the true path of knowledge; and as it brings in fresh tributes of science for the increase of human happiness, it extorts from us fresh tributes of praise to the guide and father of true philosophy. To the understanding of Aristotle, equally vast, perhaps, and equally original, we are indebted for fifteen hundred years of quibbling and ignorance, in which the earth fell under the tyranny of words, and philosophers quarrelled with one another, like drunken men in dark rooms, who hate peace without knowing why they fight, or seeing how to take aim.”—Smith's Moral Philosophy.

"It is a doctrine of Mr. Hume, in his Essay on Money,' that an influx of the precious metals gives great encouragement to industry, during the interval which elapses before the prices of commodities are adjusted to the increased quantity of specie.

We find,' says he, 'that in every kingdom into which money begins to flow in greater abundance than formerly, everything takes a new face: labour and industry gain life; the merchant becomes more enterprising, the manufacturer more diligent and skilful, and even the farmer follows his plough with greater alacrity and attention. In my opinion,' he continues, it is only in this interval, or intermediate situation, between the acquisition of money and rise of prices, that. the increased quantity of gold and silver is favourable to industry."—Questions on Political Economy.

"We hold that a Church Establishment is the most effective of all machines for the moral instruction of the people, and that, if once taken down, there is no other instrumentality by which it can be adequately replaced. We are aware, that it may be feebly and even corruptly administered; but the way to rectify this, is not to demolish the apparatus, but to direct its movements. It is the means of turning so much unproductive into productive consumption. Without a church the whole of our ecclesiastical wealth would have been in the hands of those who give no return for it. With a church we have the return of all its usefulnessits theological learning-the protection which it affords against a desolating infidelity—the service which it renders to the morality of the commonwealth-and, above all, to the eternal well-being of the individual members who compose it."-Dr. Chalmers on Political Economy.

"To all who desire a clear, common-sense, and eminently practical system of logic, and do not object to the volume that contains it comprising also a most entertaining series of extracts from some of the ablest pieces of modern argumentation, we heartily commend this Logic for the Million.' We know not where a young man desirous of self-cultivation could more certainly or more pleasurably find it than in this volume. He will only have himself to blame if he does not rise from its study with clearer thought, invigorated powers, and a mind enriched by some of the best good sense of our best writers."-Weekly News.

"Even with reference to the parts of any single nation, it is the lack of facility of intercourse which is the acknowledged cause of all that is defective in the rural population. It perpetuates peculiarities of idiom and of pronunciation, local prejudices, inactivity of mind, roughness of manner, and subjection to the power of superstition. Everything, therefore, which quickens circulation or facilitates intercourse between either the different members of the same nation, or between members of different nations, is calculated to promote the general welfare.”—The Great Exhibition Prize Essay. By the Rev. J. C. Whish, M.A.

2. With regard to moral causes, we may adopt the following modes of reasoning.

First. From the existence of the cause we may infer the existence of the effect. Thus, if a man be industrious, we may infer that he will get rich. If a man be given to intoxication, we may infer that he will reduce himself to beggary. If a man exercise his intellectual faculties, we know he will improve them.

Secondly. From the existence of the effect we may infer the existence of the cause. Thus, if a servant enjoy in a high degree the confidence of his master, we may infer that he has served him well. If a man be involved in debts which he is unable to pay, we may infer that he has been either imprudent or unfortunate.

Thirdly. From the non-existence of the cause, we may infer the non-existence of the effect. Thus, if a man has not been unfortunate nor improvident, we may argue that he cannot be poor.

Fourthly. From the non-existence of the effect we may infer the non-existence of the cause. Thus, we may say, such a person is not poor; he cannot then have been extravagant. Such a person is not an intelligent man; he cannot, then, have spent much time in reading and study. He does not speak correctly; therefore he cannot have learned grammar. On one occasion when speaking to the working classes Rowland Hill observed,-"I don't think much of that man's religion who is without his Sunday coat, when a good Providence gives him plenty of work.”(Sherman.)

3. In the relation of moral causes and effects, we have, generally, in the first instance, to prove by reasoning that such a relation exists.

If, for instance, I contend that education produces good morals, and hence, ask my neighbours to assist me in establishing a school for the poor,-I may be asked to prove, in the first instance, that education does produce good morals; for, unless I can prove the relation of cause and effect in this case, my efforts will be unavailing. So in many of the acts of ordinary life, and in nearly all our public proceedings, whether a certain cause will produce a certain effect is, in fact, the whole question in dispute.