SECTION VI.

SERIES OF REASONINGS.

We have shown that a chain of reasoning consists of a number of reasons so connected with each other, that the failure of one reason would destroy the whole argument. A series of reasoning denotes a number of reasons all bearing to prove the same sentiment, but so far unconnected with each other, that the failure of one reason does not weaken the force of the others.

It is impossible to lay down rules whereby a number of reasons may be so arranged as to produce the best effect in establishing the point for which they are adduced. Indeed, people who are sufficiently skilled in logic to be able to maintain their sentiments in a set discourse, must have acquired that systematic habit of mind which will suggest the best rules for the arrangement of their thoughts. For the sake of the young we will transcribe a few rules, which have chiefly a reference to the writing of themes, published by an author who has had great experience in tuition :

"In treating of method in reasoning, it is common to divide it into two kinds, analysis and synthesis. All, however, that seems necessary to be said in this treatise concerning these distinctions, is, that in the mode of reasoning called synthesis, the proposition is the conclusion sought; but in the reasoning called analysis, the conclusion cannot be previously proposed; for till the arguments on which it depends are unfolded, it is presumed to be unknown. In reasoning synthetically, the arguer knows beforehand what is to be established: and he may, at his option, propose it first, and add his arguments afterwards, or he may neglect to state the intended proposition, till he has brought forward what he has to advance in support of it. In reasoning analytically, the arguer lays down nothing to be proved, nor has he any foreknown conclusion in view, but he goes on, unfolding one argument after another, till he reaches a conclusion. Analysis, therefore, is the way by which we attain truth; synthesis, that by which we communicate it. We pursue the method of analysis, when, not having formed our judgment on a subject, we think to ourselves in order to form one: we pursue the method of synthesis,

when our judgment is formed, and we undertake to convince others. It is scarcely necessary to add that in writing themes, the principle on which we proceed is synthesis.

"Before anything more particular is advanced on the method of writing themes, it must be mentioned, that the manner in which a theme is given out, determines what latitude is allowed to the writer in treating it. When a theme is given out thus'On education,'' On a knowledge of the world'-the theme may be called unlimited; for the writer is left to lay down any propositions to be proved which he may think fit, provided they bear a due relation to the subject. But a particular proposition being laid down to be proved, necessarily limits the theme; as for instance, when a theme is given out thus-Man is the creature of education; A proper knowledge of the world is favourable to virtue.' This kind of theme is called a thesis,-a Greek word signifying position or proposition;-in the plural, theses. unlimited theme generally contains many theses; for whenever the writer goes into a new branch of his subject, he must lay down, or have in view, some new proposition, that is, a thesis. In a limited theme there is but one main proposition, to which every other ought to be subservient. This main proposition is called, by distinction, the thesis, and the theme which is written in support of it, takes the same name."

An

"Suppose the theme given out to be 'Friendship;'-teachers recommend the pupil to consider it under the following heads :the Definition; the Cause; the state in ancient and in modern times; the Advantages; the Disadvantages. Proper answers to the following questions will form such a theme as is here required:

"1. What is friendship? 2. What is the cause of friendship? 3. What was anciently thought of friendship, and what examples are on record? 4. What is friendship often found to be in these days? 5. What are the benefits of true friendship? 6. What are the evils of false friendship?"

"When, instead of an unlimited title, a thesis is given out to be proved, teachers recommend the following heads as helps to find the arguments :-the Proposition; the Reason; the Confirmation; the Simile; the Testimony; the Example; the Conclusion. Under the first head, the writer restates his thesis in such a shape, that the arguments he designs to use will easily connect with it. Under the second, he brings forth the strongest direct internal argument he can find in proof of it, that is, from the nature of the thing, from enumeration, from the cause, the effect, the adjuncts, the antecedents, or the consequents. Under the third, he tries to strengthen his proof by showing the absurdity of the contrary proposition, or by advancing some fresh argument of whatever kind that is not taken from the same source as the

preceding, and does not anticipate those that are to follow. Under the fourth, he uses an argument from similitude. These are internal arguments. Under the next two heads, he brings forward testimonies or authorities from authors of repute, and facts from history. And lastly, he forms his conclusion not merely in the words of the proposition with which he set out, (though in strictness the conclusion would be nothing more,) but with some practical inference or inferences appended to it."Practical Logic, or Hints to Theme-Writers. By B. H. Smart.

We shall now present the reader with some examples of propositions being proved by series of reasonings.

I. THE INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.

From an Address delivered by the Earl of Carlisle at the Meeting at Westminster.

"The object of the undertaking was too generally known to call for explanation, and too generally approved of throughout the country to stand in need of defence. He was not a member of the Royal Commission to which the office had been entrusted of superintending the management and execution of the project, and he was therefore not called upon to enlighten them with reference to the specific details. He could only make the most general remarks, and submit the most general grounds which, as he conceived, this undertaking put forward for their support. The first ground was one of a very general character, because it rested on the constitution of our common nature. He liked the occasional recurrence of celebrations, pomps, festivities, commemorations-call them by whatever name you please. They seemed to him in accordance with the feelings and instincts implanted in the human breast. He did not call to mind any country or era which had dispensed with them. In the primitive east, both in ancient and in our own times, they were, for the most part, associated with ceremonies of worship, with uncouth, and too often horrid rites. In more enlightened and civilized Greece, they consisted of public games, in displays of physical strength, ennobled, it was true, by the susceptibility of her people to all the forms of taste and beauty, and recorded in immortal song. Among the sterner Romans they generally accompanied the long train of martial triumphs up the steep ascent of the Capitol, or the more degrading spectacles which summoned the men, and, alas! the women of Rome, to witness the dying throes of the gladiator, or the bloody struggles of captives and wild beasts. In our own age and country they naturally wore a softer aspect; but still, in his judgment, had been too much confined to the easier and wealthier classes, or connected with the pursuits

of frivolity and dissipation. It seemed, therefore, but natural and becoming at the period of the world at which we were arrived, that industry, that skill, that enterprise should in their turn have their own ovation, their own triumph, their own high holiday, where the workmen and workwomen of the world might enjoy a day's pause from their engrossing toils for the purpose of seeing what their fellow-workmen and workwomen were doing and could do all the world over-that they might see, not barbaric rites, but useful inventions; not exhibitions of physical prowess in the prize ring, or the foot-race, but results which interested the mind and elevated the soul; not suppliant provinces and chained captives, but the pursuits of peace and of civilization-not crowded saloons and heated theatres, but an arena where all ranks might mingle, where all might learn, and all might profit by what they saw. This was one of the grounds which the undertaking put forward for support. It might be reckoned one, perhaps, rather of a sentimental and fanciful character; he would proceed to one somewhat more practical. The exhibition, carried into effect on the scale proposed, would give people in all pursuits and professions, in all classes and callings, the opportunity of examining and ascertaining methods by which the work which formed the daily business of their lives might be expedited, facilitated, assisted, and improved. There might be the textures which best suited the climate in which we lived. There might be the tools and implements calculated to lighten or shorten labour. There might be the discoveries in mechanics which should mould to the purpose of man the unvarying attributes of matter, space, and time; discoveries of which we, perhaps, had long been in the unconscious need, but which had long been beneficially adopted in other countries. He could not but look forward with pleasure and hope to the evidences which our countrymen would afford of the distinguished progress they had made in the pursuits of civilized life, and especially in those which interested most permanently the well-being and comfort of the millions. And though he could not forget, on this occasion, as he could not forget on any occasion, his long connexion with a district which had attained a marked eminence in all these departments of production-the West Riding of Yorkshire, the region of our cutlery, of our hardware, of our great woollen and worsted manufactures-yet he must say, that he not only anticipated advantage to the country from our victories on this occasion, but also from our defeats. It was only when we could compare and put side by side what we could not do and what we were not with what we could do and with what we were, that we could attain the true. measure of our superiority and of our deficiencies. Nations, equally with individuals, should say, after Brutus,—

'I should be glad to learn of better men.""

II. THE INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION AND SHOPKEEPERS.

THE LONDON

In what way can the Exhibition have injured trade? Let us place the matter steadily before us for consideration, and ask ourselves by what conceivable means the vast addition that has been made to the floating population of London can possibly take money out of the pockets of our tradesmen? Here are the railway termini and steamboat quays daily pouring upon the town their thousands of visitors to the Crystal Palace. How can the presence of these almost innumerable multitudes be said to injure trade? Granted that considerable bodies of the labouring population come and go in the same day, even these have given a considerable stimulus to the receipts of the railways, and of the ordinary conveyances which ply about our streets. Thousands no doubt come and go, but thousands remain for twenty-four, for forty-eight hours, for a week. About 50,000 persons daily visit the Crystal Palace. We presume that these sojourners are affected by the ordinary wants of humanity. They must eat something, they must drink something, they must sleep somewhere. It is certain that the great bulk of the number will soon have returned to their homes, yet they will be replaced by others, who will be replaced by others in their turn. Now, is it natural to suppose that the ladies of the different parties, old or young, will be indisposed to carry back from town' such articles of finery as may be best calculated for the enslavement of the country-side? We will not confine the observation to ladies alone, for we have yet to learn that men who come up from the provinces to make holiday, with a reasonable amount of ready money in their pockets, do not usually succumb to temptation before the brilliant shop-fronts of the metropolis. A watch must be purchased for one fair cousin, a dress for another, and so on. Each lays in a stock of presents for absent friends, according to his means and degree-the selfish fellows buy for themselves. We are surely not exaggerating matters, for we find, on turning to the traffic returns of the railways for the past week, as compared with the corresponding week of last year, that the London and North Western has taken 66,5617. as against 51,4921. Now, all due abatement made for other causes which might have stimulated traffic, is there not here enough to show the nature of the addition that must have been made to the floating population of the metropolis during the past week? The past week is merely a repetition of other weeks that have preceded it, and a sample of others that are to follow.

"We have not dwelt upon the influx of foreigners that has actually taken place, although a considerable increase in the usual number of our continental visitors must, of necessity, exercise a