I. 2. 3. 'The spot where-the-battle-was-fought is unknown.' 'I live where-the-battle-was-fought.' In (1), where-the-battle-was-fought is adjectival, limiting 'spot'; in like manner we might say 'the exact spot is unknown.' In (2), it is a noun-clause, equivalent to 'The spot is unknown,' "The fact is unknown,' 'It is unknown.' In (3), it is adverbial, modifying the verb 'live,' just as an adverb would modify it in the sentence 'I live there. When the reader has mastered the distinction between compound and complex sentences and between the three kinds of subordinate clauses, one or other of which every complex sentence contains, analysis will present very few difficulties to him. But his analysis of complex sentences will generally be wrong, if he attempts the task without an intelligent grasp of the principles which have been stated above. From this digression into syntax we must now return to the subject of conjunctions from which we may seem to have wandered far. 207. The reader should now be able readily to grasp our meaning when we say that co-ordinating conjunctions are those which unite co-ordinate clauses; and that subordinating conjunctions are those which join subordinate clauses to the principal clause of a complex sentence. The subordinate clauses which a subordinating conjunction introduces are noun-clauses or adverbial clauses. Adjective-clauses are attached to the principal clause by a relative pronoun or by a relative adverb, as, 'The general who won the victory was knighted,' which is equivalent to "The victorious general was knighted'; 'The house where nobody lives is to be pulled down,' which is equivalent to 'The empty house is to be pulled down.' Noun-clauses are generally introduced by that, and occur especially after verbs of saying, thinking, believing, asking, hoping, seeing, and others of similar import: 'I say that he did it,' 'I think that this is so.' But that is not essential to a noun-clause: thus the following clauses in italics are noun-clauses; 'I see how you did it,' 'When he did it is not clear,' 'He asked if I did it,' 'We heard you had gone. 208. Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified as follows: Introducing Adverb Clauses of I. Time: when, while, before, till, after, since 2. Place: where, whither, whence 3. Cause because, since 4. Purpose: that, lest 5. 6. Result: that Condition: if, unless 7. Concession: though and introducing Noun Clauses 9. that. 209. Conjunctions have grown out of other parts of speech. The conjunction that was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun. 'I know that you did it' represents 'You did it: I know that,' the order of the clauses being reversed. Both, used with and, is the same word as the adjective; either, used with or, is the same word as the distributive pronoun. Than was formerly an adverb. Before, after, since, were once prepositions and were followed by 'that.' To distinguish Conjunctions from Prepositions is easy: Conjunctions never govern a case. To distinguish Conjunctions from Adverbs is often difficult, and our remarks on the distinction shall be reserved till we are dealing with the Syntax of Adverbs and Conjunctions. 210. Conjunctions which are used in pairs with other conjunctions or adverbs are called Correlatives: for example, both...and, not only...but also, either...or, as...as, so...that: thus, 'Loan oft loses both itself and friend,' 'Not only was he idle but also vicious,' 'This is either true or false,' 'There live we as merry as the day is long,' 'Write so that I may hear next week.' An Interjection is a sound which expresses an emotion but does not enter into the construction of the sentence. As Interjections have no connexion with the grammatical structure of the sentence, their claim to recognition among the Parts of Speech is a small one. O! ah! pooh ! psha! like the barking of a dog or the lowing of a calf, are noises, not words. If there were any advantage in classifying these sounds, we might group them according to the feelings which they express, as Interjections denoting joy, disgust, surprise, vexation, and so forth. Interjections which are corruptions or contractions of words, or elliptical forms of expression, may be referred to the parts of speech to which they originally belong. So, adieu is 'to God (I commend you),' goodbye is 'God be with you,' hail is 'be thou hale' or 'healthy,' law or lawks I is a corruption of 'Lord!' and marry! of 'Mary!' QUESTIONS. 1. What are Correlative Conjunctions? Give the correlatives of either, though, both, and of such and so with different senses. 2. What, since, well. Illustrate by short sentences the various grammatical uses of each of these words, and mention in every instance its part of speech in your sentence. 3. Construct three Complex sentences, each containing as its subordinate clause the words when the accident happened. In the first sentence the subordinate clause is to be a noun clause, in the second an adjective clause, and in the third an adverbial clause. 199 CHAPTER XXI. COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES. 212. IF we were to read down a column of words on a page of an English dictionary, we should find that the great majority of these words have been formed from other words, either by joining two words together, or by adding to a word a sound which by itself is without meaning. Thus from man in combination with other words there have been made freeman, mankind, midshipman, footman, while, by the addition of an element which has no significance alone, manly, unman, mannikin, have come into existence. The former process is called Composition, the latter Derivation: words made by the former process are called Compounds, by the latter, Derivatives. The terms 'Derivation' and 'Derivative' are not well chosen, as their meaning is here narrowed down from the sense in which they are generally used. When we speak of the derivation of a word we usually signify the source from which it comes: thus we say that phenomenon is of Greek 'derivation' and vertex of Latin "derivation,' though as these words have been transferred ready-made from foreign languages they are not, in this special sense, English derivatives at all. But the employment of the terms derivation and derivative, in contrast with the terms composition and compound, is too well established to allow of our making a change, and the student must therefore bear in mind that when used in this connexion they indicate an important distinction in the mode of the formation of words. Composition is the formation of a word by joining words together. or, Derivation is the formation of a word (1) by adding a part not significant by itself, (2) by modifying an existing sound. The part not significant by itself when attached at the beginning of a word is called a Prefix; when attached at the end, a Suffix. A Hybrid is a compound or derivative containing elements which come from different languages. 213. Unlike Greek and German, modern English does not lend itself readily to the formation of long compounds. If the reader cares to turn to his Greek lexicon and to look up the word beginning oppopoɩro- or the still more formidable λeñadoreμaxo-, he will see this facility for making compounds burlesqued by Aristophanes. A humourist of our own day, Mark Twain, deals with German compounds in a like playful fashion. In compound words, the first word usually modifies the meaning of the second. A ring-finger is a particular kind of finger; a finger-ring a particular kind of ring. In true grammatical compounds there is usually a change of form or of accent. So spoonful is a true grammatical compound of spoon full. Poorhouse and Newport carry an accent on the first syllable as compounds: as separate words each of the two is accented equally. Compare a poor house by the new port' with 'the poórhouse at Néwport.' Words joined by a hyphen with no change of form or of accent are merely printers' compounds. 214. Words disguised in form. The appearance of some words is deceptive, suggesting as it does that they are compounds when they are not, or |