The word hiftory is, however, fometimes used to fignify a defcription of things, as well as an account of facts. Thus Theophraftus calls his work on the nature and properties of plants, an biftory of plants; and we have a treatise of Ariftotle, intitled an biftory of Animals; and to this day the description of plants, animals,and minerals, are called by the general náme of NATURAL HISTORY.

But what chiefly merits the name of HISTORY, and what is here confidered as fuch, is an account of the principal transactions of mankind from the beginning of the world. This fubject is generally divided into two parts, viz. CIVIL and ECCLESIASTICAL. The firft contains the history of mankind in their various relations to one another, and their behaviour, for their own emolument, or that of others, in common life; the fecond confiders them as acting, or pretending to act, in obedience to what they believe to be the will of the Supreme Being. Civil hiftory, therefore, includes an account of all the different ftates that have exifted in the world, and likewise of those men who in different ages of the world have most eminently diftinguished themselves, either for their good or evil actions. This laft part of civil hiftory, however, forms a diftinct branch, ufually ftyled BIOGRAPHY,

Hiftory is juftly esteemed a very confiderable branch of polite literature. Few accomplish ments are more valued than an accurate knowledge of the hiftories of different nations; and scarce any literary production is more regarded than a well written hiftory of any nation: although the truth of Dr Goldsmith's remark in his History of England, must be acknowledged with respect to those of all nations; viz. that "hiftory is generally little more than the register of human contention and calamity."

As to the ftudy of hiftory, we must confider, that all the revolutions which have happened in the world have been owing to two causes. 1. The connections between the different ftates exifting together in the world at the same time, or their different fituations with regard to one another; and, 2. The different characters of the people who in all ages constituted thefe ftates, their different geniuses and difpofitions, &c. by which they were either prompted to undertake fuch and fuch actions of themselves, or were easily induced to it by others. The person who would study hiftory, therefore, ought firft to make himself acquainted with the ftate of the world in general in all different ages; what nations inhabited the different parts of it; what their extent of territory was; at what parti cular time they arofe, and when they declined. He fhould next inform himself of the various events which have happened to each particular nation; and thus he will difcover many of the caufes of those revolutions, which before he only knew as facts.

Thus, for instance, a perfon may know the Roman history from the time of Romulus, without knowing why the city of Rome happened to be built at that time. This cannot be underflood without a particular knowledge of the former ftate of Italy, and even of Greece and Afia; feeing the origin of the Romans is commonly traced as high as Æneas, one of the heroes of Troy. But when ail this is done, which indeed requires no small la

bour, the hiftorian has yet to study the genius and difpofitions of the different nations, the characters of those who were the principal directors of their affairs, whether kings, minifters, generals, or priests'; and when this is accomplished, he will difcover the caufes of thofe transactions in the different nations, which have given rife to the great revolutions aboye mentioned: after which, he may affume the cha-racter of one who is well versed in history. ·

The firft outline of history may be eafily obtained by the inspection of an historical chart, fuch as that fubjoined to the present treatise. See Plate CLXXXIII. and the explanation at the end of this treatise. Along with this it will be proper to perufe a fhort abridgment of general history, from the creation of the world to the prefent time. The following is collected from the best authorities, and may lerve to affift the ftudent in acquiring a knowledge of general hiftory.

PART I

OF CIVIL HISTORY.

INTRODUCTION.

CIVIL HISTORY, though it might seem incapable of any natural divifion, except that of arranging it according to the different ftates whose tranfactions it defcribes, may yet be very properly divided into the following periods, at each of which a great revolution took place, either with regard to the whole world, or a very confiderable part of it; viz.

1. The creation of man. 2. The flood. 3. The commencement of profane hiftory, i. e. when, leaving the fabulous relations of heroes, demi. gods, &c. to the poets, men began to relate facts with fome regard to truth and credibility. 4. The conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus, and the destruction of the Babylonian empire. 5. The reign of Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Perfian empire. 6. The deftruction of Carthage by the Romans, when the latter had no longer any rival capable of oppofing their defign of univerfal empire. 7. The reign of Trajan, when the Roman empire was brought to its utmoft extent. 8. The divifion of the empire under Conftantine. 9. The deftruction of the western empire by Odoacer, and the fettlement of the different nations of Europe. 10. The rife of Mahomet and the conquefts of the Saracens and Turks. 11. The crufades, and all the fpace intervening between that time and the American war. 12. The last but not the leaft important æra, from the commencement of the American war, to the period of the French revo lution, of which the final consequences are not yet within the range of human conjecture.

With regard to the number of years which have elapfed fince the creation of the world, there have been many difputes. The compilers of the Univerfal History determine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C. fo that, according to them, the world is now in the 6106th year of its age. Others think it was created only 40c0 years B. C. fo that it is not yet 5801 years old. Be this as it will, however, the whole account of the creation refts on the truth of the Mofaic hiftory; and which we muft of neceffity accept, because we can find

Spain, and reigned there 9 years, after which he abandoned it to the Carthaginians; but this feems improbable.

The extent of the Babylonian empire is not certainly known; but from what is recorded of it, we may conclude that it was not at all inferior, even in this respect, to any that ever exifted: as the Scriptures tell us it was fuperior in wealth to any of the fucceeding ones. It comprehended Phanicia, Paleftine, Syria, Babylonia, Media, and Perfia, and probably India alfo. From a confideration of this vaft extent of territory, and the riches with which every one of these countries abounded, we may form fome idea of the wealth and power of this monarch. When we confider alfo that the whole ftrength of this mighty empire was employed in beautifying the metropolis, we can, not look upon the wonders of that city, as related by Herodotus, to be at all incredible. As to what passed in the republic of Carthage about this time, we are quite in the dark; there being a chafm in its history for no less than 300 years. SECT. IV. From the ERECTION of the BABYLO NIAN EMPIRE to its OVERTHROW by CYRUS. This 4th general period of hiftory is very fhort, including only 31 years. This fudden revolution was occafioned by the mifconduct of Evil-merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's fon, even in his father's life-time. For having, in a great hunting match, on occafion of his marriage, entered the country of the Medes, and fome of his troops coming up at the fame time to relieve the garrifons in thofe places, he joined them to thofe already with him, and without the leaft provocation began to plunder and lay wafte the neighbouring country. This produced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended over all Media and Perfia. The Medes, headed by Aftyages and his fon Cyaxares, drove back Evil-merodach and his party with great flaughter; nor doth it appear that they were af terwards reduced even by Nebuchadnezzar himfelf. The new empire continued daily to gather ftrength; and at laft Cyrus, Aftyages's grandfon, a prince of great prudence and valour, being made generaliffimo of the Median and Perfian forces, took Babylon itself, in the year 538 B. C. See BA BYLONIA, $2.

The Romans, during this period, increafed in power under the wife government of their king Servius Tullius, a pacific prince, who rendered his people more formidable by a peace of 20 years, than his predeceffors had done by all their victories. The Greeks, even at this early period, began to interfere with the Perfians, on account of the Ionians, or Grecian colonies in Afia Minor. These had been subdued by Cræfus king of Lydia about the year 562, the time of Nebuchadnezzar's death. Whether the Lydians had been fubdued by the Babylonish monarch or not, is not afcertained; though it is probable that they were either in fubjection to him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his death nothing confiderable was undertaken by them. It is alfo very probable that during the infanity of Nebuchadnezzar, fpoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his kingdom would fall into confufion; and many of thofe princes whom he formerly retained in fubjection would fet up VOL. XI. PART I.

for themfelves. Certain it is, however, that if the Babylonians did not regard Craefus as their fubject, they confidered him as a very faithful ally; infomuch, that they celebrated an annual feast in commemoration of a victory obtained by him over the Scythians. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Cræfus fubdued many nations in Afia Minor, and among the reft the Ionians. They were, however, greatly attached to his government: for, though they paid him tribute, and were obliged to furnish him with some forces in time of war, they were yet free from all kind of oppreffion.

When Cyrus therefore was proceeding in his conquefts of different parts of the Babylonish em pire, before he proceeded to attack the capital, he offered very advantageous terms to the Ionians, but they refufed to fubmit to him. But foon af ter, Crofus himself being defeated and taken prifoner, the Ionians fent ambaffadors to Cyrus, offering to fubmit on the terms formerly propofed. Thefe were now refufed; and the Ionians, being determined to refift, applied to the Spartans for aid. Though the Spartans at that time could not

be prevailed upon to give their countrymen any

affiftance, they fent ambaffadors to Cyrus with a threatening meffage, to which he returned a contemptuous anfwer, and then forced the Ionians to fubmit at difcretion, 5 years before the taking of Babylon.

Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and Perfians; and thus we fee, that in the two first great monarchies the feeds of their deftruction were fown even before the monarchies themselves were established. For while Nebuchadnezzar was raifing the Babylonish empire to its utmoft height, his fon was deftroying what his father built up; and at the very time when Cyrus was establishing the Perfian monarchy, by his illtimed feverity to the Greeks he made that warlike people his enemies, whom his fucceffors were by no means able to refift, and who would probably have overcome Cyrus himself, had they united to attack him. The tranfactions of Africa during this period are almost entirely unknown; though we cannot doubt that the Carthaginians enriched themselves by means of their commerce, which enabled them afterwards to attain to fuch a confiderable fhare of power.

SECT. V. From the ERECTION of the PERSIAN EMPIRE to its OVERTHROW by ALEXANDER; and to the DIVISION of the GRECIAN EMPIRE, upon his DEATH.

CYRUS having now become master of all the eaft, the Afiatic affairs continued for fome time in a ftate of tranquillity. The Jews obtained leave to return to their own country, rebuild their temple, and re-establish their worthip, of all which an account is given in the facred writings. Cambyfes, the fucceffor of Cyrus, added Egypt to his empire, which had not either fubmitted to Cyrus, or revolted foon after his death. He intended alfo to have fubdued the Carthaginians; but as the Phonicians refused to fupply him with ships to fight against their own countrymen, he was obliged to lay this defign afide.

In 517 B. C. the Babylonians finding themselves grievously oppreffed by their Persian mafters, re S s

folved

folved to shake off the yoke, and fet up for themfelves. For this purpose, they ftored their city with all manner of provifions; and when Darius Hyftafpes, then king of Perfia, advanced against them, they took the most barbarous method that can be imagined, of preventing an unneceffary confumption of thofe provifions which they had fo carefully amaffed. Having collected all the women, old men, and children, into one place, they ftrangled them without diftinction, whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or fifters; every one being allowed to fave only the wife he liked beft, and a maid-servant to do the work of the house. This cruel policy did not avail them: their city was taken by treachery (for it was impoffible to take it by force); after which the king caufed the walls of it to be beat down from 200 to 50 cubits height, that their ftrength might no longer give encouragement to the inhabitants to revolt.

Darius then turned his arms against the Scythians; but finding that expedition turn out both te. dious and unprofitable, he directed bis course eastward, and reduced all the country as far as the Indus. In the mean time, the Ionians revolted; and being affifted by the Greeks, a war commenced between the two nations, which was not thoroughly extinguished but by the destruction of the Perfian empire in 330 B. C. The lonians, however, were for this time obliged to fubmit, after a war of fix years; and were treated with great feverity By the Perfians. The conqueft of Greece itself was then projected: but the expeditions for that purpose ended most unfortunately for the Perfians, and encouraged the Greeks to make reprifals on them, in which they fucceeded to their utmost wifhes; and had it only been poflible for them to have agreed among themselves, the downfal of the Perfian empire might have happened much fooner than it did. See ATTICA, PERSIA, and SPARTA. In 459 B. C. the Egyptians attempted to recover their liberty, but were reduced after a war of x years. In 413 B. C. they revolted a fecond time; and, being affifted by the Sidonians, drew upon the latter that terrible deftruction foretold by the prophets; while they themselves were fo thorough ly humbled, that they never after made any at tempt to recover their liberty.

The revolt of Cyrus the younger againit his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which, through bis own rafhnefs, he miscarried, and loft his life at the battle of Cunaxa, in the province of BabyJon, happened in the year B. C. 401 or 403. See CYRUS, N° 2. Ten thoufand Greek mercenaries, who ferved in his army, made their way back into Greece, though furrounded on all fides by the Pemy, and in the heart of a hoftile country. In this retreat they were commanded by XENOPHON, who has received the highest praises on account of his conduct and military skill in bringing it to a happy conchifion. Two years after, the invafion of Agetilaus king of Sparta threatened the Perfian empire with total deftruction; from which, however, it was relieved by his being recalled to deSend his own country against the other Grecian fates and after this the Perfian affairs continued in a more profperous way till the time of Alex

ander.

During all this time, the volatile and giddy tem

per of the Greeks, with their enthusiastic defire of romantic exploits, were preparing fetters for themfelves, which indeed feemed to be neceffary to prevent them from destroying one another. A zeal for liberty was what they all avowed; but, on every occafion, it appeared that this love of liberty was only a defire of dominion. No ftate in Greece could bear to fee another equal to itself; and hence their perpetual contefts for pre-eminence, which could not but weaken the whole body, and render them an easy prey to an ambitious and politic prince, who was capable of taking advantage of thofe divifions. Being all impatient of restraint, they never could fubmit long to any regular government; and hence their determinations were often nothing but the decisions of a mere mob, of which they had afterwards almoft conftantly reafon to repent. Hence also their base treatment of thofe eminent men whom they ought moft to have honoured: as Miltiades, Ariftides, Themistocles, Cimon, Alcibiades, Socrates, Phocion, &c.

The various tranfactions between the Grecian ftates, though they make a very confiderable figure in particular hiftory, make but a very small one in a general sketch of the hiftory of the world. We shall therefore only obferve, that in 404 B. C. the Athenian power was totally broken by the taking of their city by the Spartans. See ATTICA, $13, 14. In 370 that of the Spartans received a fevere check from the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra; and 8 years after was ftill further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epaminondas, the great enemy of the Spartans, was killed; but this only proved a more fpeedy means of fubjugating all the states to a foreign, and at that time defpicable power. The Macedonians, a barbarous nation, lying to the N. of the ftates of Greece, were, two years after the death of Epaminondas, reduced to the loweft condition by the Illyrians, another nation of barbarians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon being killed in an engagement, Philip his brother departed from Thebes, where he had ftudied the art of war under Epaminondas, to take poffeffion of his kingdom. Being a man of great prudence and policy, he quickly fettled his own affairs; vanquished the Illyrians: and, being no ftranger to the weakened fituation of Greece, began almoft immediately to meditate the conqueft of it.

The particulars of this enterprise will be found related under the article MACEDON, § 6, 7, &c. Here it is fufficient to mention, that by first attacking thofe he was fure he could overcome, by corrupting those whom he thought it dangerous to attack, by fometimes pretending to affift one ftate and fometimes another, and by impofing upon all as beft ferved his turn, he at last put it out of the power of the Greeks to make any refiftance, at leaft fuch as could keep him from gaining his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himself to be elected general of the Amphictyons, or council of the Grecian ftates, under pretence of fettling some troubles at that time in Greece; but having once ob tained liberty to enter that country with an army, he quickly convinced the ftates that they must all fubmit to his will. He was oppofed by the Athenians and Thebans; but the inteftine wars of Greece had cut off all her great men, and no ge.

nera!