have been a hybrid between hieroglyphic and syllabic writing, was employed by the common people; while the hieratic, which was more purely hieroglyphic, was employed by the priests. The bark of the papyrus-reed, which grew in jungles along the Nile, was used instead of paper.

The children were early trained in good manners and morals. The Egyptians knew, says Plato, "that children ought to be early accustomed to such gestures, looks, and motions as are decent and proper, and not to be suffered either to hear or learn any verses and songs other than those which are calculated to inspire them with virtue; and they consequently took care that every dance and ode introduced at their feasts or sacrifices should be subject to certain regulations."

HIGHER EDUCATION.-The priestly and warrior castes enjoyed the greatest educational advantages. At Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis there were institutions for superior instruction which were open to these two classes. The course of study embraced language, mathematics, geometry, astronomy, natural science, and religion, though the most advanced instruction was reserved for the priesthood alone. The annual overflow of the Nile, which in many cases destroyed landmarks, made a knowledge of mathematics, particularly of geometry, of high importance, and hence this subject received especial attention. Gymnastics and music were excluded from the general means of culture. "It is not the custom in Egypt," says Diodorus, "to learn gymnastics and music; it is believed that the former is dangerous to the youth, and that the latter is not only useless, but even hurtful, because it renders men effeminate." Yet in Chemnis gymnastics were taught, and music was employed in connection with

religious services. Reverence for the priesthood and religion, and respect for the usages handed down by tradition, were carefully and effectually inculcated.

CONCLUSION. The Egyptian system, as it existed before the intermixture of Grecian elements, has been designated priestly education. "Egypt loves only the past," says Karl Schmidt, "and its national monument is the pyramid, that is, a Titanic grave. We easily understand the influence which the priests must exercise upon such a land; it is made for them, or rather, it is made by them. No chain is stronger in the hand of priests, in order to keep a people in bondage, than an infinitely complicated ritual. The priesthood constituted the really human element among the Egyptians. Their power was limited only by the absolute power of the high priest, namely, the king."

II

THE ANCIENT CLASSICAL NATIONS

INTEREST AND PROMINENCE. The ancient classical nations, Greece and Rome, are surrounded with a peculiar charm. They are the earliest representatives of European civilization, and as such they have placed us under great and permanent obligations. Though the stream of culture has broadened and deepened since their glory waned, receiving in particular the mighty tributaries of Christianity and modern science and invention, it must yet trace its origin to the renowned cities of Athens and Rome. They have left us a rich heritage in the domains of science and government; they have transmitted heroic deeds of patriotism that have never been surpassed; in architecture and sculpture they have furnished models and inspiration for all time; and in the most important departments of literature-in poetry, history, oratory, and philosophy-they have produced works of exalted genius and perpetual worth. These nations must always retain a prominent place in the history of the world.

PLACE IN EDUCATION.-These two nations naturally occupy a prominent place in the history of education. They have left us tolerably complete records of their thought and achievements. In education they mark an obvious advance upon the defective systems of the Orient. The individual comes into a certain prominence. He is not crushed beneath the weight of some relentless external

power, but attains at length to a degree of personal freedom. To some extent at least the worth of the individual is appreciated, and within certain limits he is left to himself in the pursuit of wealth and happiness. Education becomes the subject of careful, scientific thought, and enlarged views of its nature and obligations are promulgated. Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian—these are honored names in educational history. Beautiful results, as exhibited in the physical and intellectual life of the people, are obtained. No other nations have exerted such immeasurable influence upon the world.

1. GREECE

LAND AND PEOPLE.-Greece, the older of the ancient classical nations, is about half the size of Pennsylvania, and possesses a mild climate and rich diversity of surface. Its numerous coast indentations give it peculiar facilities for commerce. These facts are worthy of mention, for they were not without influence upon the wellendowed and versatile inhabitants. As a branch of the Aryan family the Greeks are of the same blood as the leading nations of Europe. In ancient times Greece was divided into a considerable number of little States. This gave occasion to almost incessant strife, during which one and another of the States, according to the skill of its leaders or the number of its allies, gained the ascendency. In the history of education, however, only two States, or rather two cities, are worthy of consideration. These are Sparta and Athens. It is here alone, so far as the records. have descended to us, that a complete system of education was developed.

THE HEROIC AGE.-During the heroic age, to which

belongs the immortal siege of Troy, education possessed but a single character in all Greece. It was patriarchal. The father trained his sons to physical strength and filial piety, and the mother trained her daughters to household duties and domestic virtues. In the language of Schiller, "to throw the spear and honor the gods" was the end of male education. At a later date, when Greece had attained its highest power, when Leonidas defended Thermopylæ, and Miltiades won the field of Marathon, the educational systems of Sparta and Athens were in striking contrast and contributed no little to perpetuate and embitter the feud existing between these two proud cities.

A. Sparta

SOCIAL CONDITION.-This city was inhabited by the Dorians, a hardy and warlike race of Greeks, who held tenaciously to old customs and sternly set themselves in opposition to the highest forms of culture. In the ninth century before Christ, Lycurgus prepared a constitution for Sparta corresponding to the Doric character and the peculiar circumstances of the State. The Spartans, including only about nine thousand families, were but a small part of the population of Laconia, though they were the conquering and ruling class. There were two other classes still more numerous and sorely discontented with Spartan domination; these were the Perioci, who lived as freemen in the towns adjacent to Sparta, and the Helots, who were bound to the soil as serfs. In order to maintain their supremacy in the midst of this hostile population it was necessary for the Spartans to be constantly vigilant and strong.

SYSTEM OF LYCURGUS.-The system of Lycurgus, harsh