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LAW OF ASSOCIATIONS.-As shown by the statistics of 1898 and 1899, the secondary instruction of France had. in large measure passed into the hands of Catholic religious associations. The attendance of pupils in the State secondary schools for 1899 was 85,599; in the schools of the religious orders, 91,825. The Government believed that the influence of these associations was adverse to the Republic, and hence in 1901 it secured the passage of what is known as the Law of Associations. The avowed purpose of this law was to bring the religious orders into subordination to the civil authority, of which they had previously been independent. The law requires that every association shall publish, through its founders, its title and object, the place of its establishment, and the names, professions, and domicile of those who are in any way concerned with its administration or management." The execution of the law, which brings all secondary education under State control, was attended with violent discussions and riotous outbreaks; but the Government has triumphed, and the refractory orders have been disbanded or driven from the country. Of 16,500 religious establishments, only 5,000 have conformed to the requirements of the law.

HIGHER EDUCATION.-Superior instruction is given by the five faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy, and science. Until recently they were not united in one body, as is the case in the universities of Germany and the United States, but maintained a separate existence as professional schools.

The faculties of theology were established at Paris, Aix, Bordeaux, Lyons, Rouen, Montauban; those of law at Paris, Toulouse, Aix, Caen, Dijon, Poitiers, Rheims, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Douai, Nancy; those of science at Paris,

Besançon, Rennes, Caen, Bordeaux, Clermont, Poitiers, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Nancy, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Toulouse; and those of literature at Paris, Aix, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Douai, Grenoble, Lyons, Montpellier, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Nancy. In addition to giving instruction, these faculties conducted examinations, and conferred the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor.

In 1890 fifteen of the separate faculties were organized into State universities, named after the cities in which

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they are located. "A university," says the law creating them, "must comprise at least the four faculties of law, medicine, sciences, and letters; other establishments of superior instruction may also be incorporated with it at the instance of the minister." Increased appropriations have been made by the Government, and new life has been infused into this department of the educational system. Specially notable is the stress laid upon technological studies. "Invested with civil personality and endowed with financial autonomy," says M. Perreau, of the Chamber of Deputies, "the universities have created institutes, courses, and laboratories for instruction in industrial and agricultural chemistry, applied mechanics, electricity, bacteriology, and for analysis, experiments, and research, under the direction of distinguished masters." Besides the practical work of the universities, special higher technical schools exist, among which may be mentioned the Polytechnic School of Paris, the School of Higher Commercial Studies, and the National Conservatory of Arts and Trades.

C. England

GENERAL SURVEY.-In England popular education has made less progress than in any other Protestant country of Europe. The explanation of this fact is to be found in the conservative character of the people, and the aristocratic organization of society. It is only in recent years that the masses have become prominent. Hence, it has happened that, while popular education was left to individual effort and denominational zeal, the children of the wealthy and the noble have enjoyed the advantages of the great preparatory schools-Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Christ's Hospital.

PREPARATORY SCHOOLS.-These preparatory or endowed schools, which have been justly celebrated in English education, were founded, with three exceptions, in the sixteenth century. They are large boarding-schools, whose courses of study raise them to the rank of the French lyceum or the German gymnasium. In accordance with the conservative character of English institutions, it is but recently that these schools have been much affected by modern educational progress. At present they are losing their medieval character before the pressure for reform; and though Latin and Greek still remain the chief subjects of study, increasing attention is being paid to the mother-tongue, the natural sciences, and the modern languages. The methods of instruction are becoming less mechanical; and the principle of authority, which formerly repressed a spirit of independence, is now giving place to freedom of thought and investigation. Athletics are cultivated with great zeal. The system of fagging, which re

quires students of the lower classes to perform menial services for those of the upper classes, still exists.

In addition to these endowed schools, there are many other schools and colleges devoted to secondary instruction.

THOMAS ARNOLD.-Dr. Thomas Arnold, who became head master of Rugby in 1828, instituted numerous reforms there, and proved himself one of the greatest educators England has produced. He made promotion depend, not on a mechanical routine of work, but upon merit and scholarship as determined by examinations. Through his strong personality and vigorous appeals to the moral sense of his pupils, he greatly improved the moral and religious tone of the school. In place of the brutal fagging system that had previously prevailed, he introduced a system of responsible supervision by the upper-class men over the younger boys, and thus created an opportunity for the exercise of manly virtue. He was severely criticized and opposed, but he persisted in his reformatory plans. And, to use the words of an English writer, "he firmly established his system, and his successors, men differing in training and temperament from himself and from each other, have agreed in cordially sustaining it. His pupils and theirs, men in very different walks of life, filling honorable posts at the universities and public schools, or ruling the millions of India, or working among the blind and toiling multitudes of our great towns, feel daily how much of their usefulness and power they owe to the sense of high trust and high duty which they imbibed at school."

THE UNIVERSITIES.-The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, whose origin is lost in the darkness of the middle ages, are among the most celebrated in the world. They are similar in organization; Oxford comprising

twenty-three separate colleges, and Cambridge nineteen. Each college has a separate organization of its own, presided over by a president, rector, or provost, while all are under a central or university government administered by a chancellor, in conjunction with a council elected by the several colleges. The universities are maintained by munificent endowments, the gifts of benefactors and the founders of colleges. Candidates for graduation must reside in a college for three academic years; when, upon passing a satisfactory examination before the university examiners, they receive their degree. Oxford and Cambridge are both very conservative, and still merit in some degree the criticisms of Bacon and Milton. During the nineteenth century other institutions for superior instruction were founded, chief among which is the University of London, created by royal charter in 1836.

The most important event in the recent higher education of Great Britain is the rise of university colleges in the great centers of industry. These colleges exhibit the modern progressive spirit, and are characterized by their liberal courses in science and technical training, and also by their admission of women on the same terms as men. They are supported by private and public contributions, and the most noteworthy phase of their development is their ascent into university organization. Thus Owens College, Manchester (1851), Yorkshire College, Leeds (1874), and University College, Liverpool (1881), were incorporated as Victoria University in 1880. The three colleges of Wales-Aberystwyth, Bangor, and Cardiffare comprised in the University of Wales, which was organized in 1893. Mason College, Birmingham, is the nucleus of Birmingham University, which was incorporated in 1900. This development has been stimulated.