schools have been constantly increasing in number and popularity. In a recent order the Emperor of Germany has thrown the weight of his authority on the side of the real-schools. "With reference to the privilege of students of abridging their military service to one year," he says, "the three kinds of schools-the Gymnasia, the Realschulen of the first order, and the Realgymnasiashall be considered of equal value in general education. I lay especial weight upon the importance which knowledge of the English language has gained of late, and desire, therefore, that English be introduced as an optional study everywhere of equal rank with Greek."

The studies in these two classes of schools vary somewhat in different parts of Germany; but the courses pursued at present in the Prussian gymnasia and real-schools are fairly representative:

The course of instruction in both the gymnasia and the real-schools extends through nine years. Pupils enter at nine years of age, and complete the course at eighteen or nineteen; but many give up their studies at fourteen. As a rule, they do not room or board in the school buildings; and, when coming from a distance, they are placed under the care of some trustworthy resident of the town or city, who watches over their studies and conduct out of school hours. The secondary schools usually charge a tuition fee, which varies from about five dollars to twentyseven dollars, according to class.

TEACHING AND WOMAN'S EDUCATION.-Germany has, perhaps, the best trained teachers in the world. With very few exceptions, they are graduates of normal schools, and have had a practical training before entering upon their work. Only after repeated examinations in the science and art of education, as well as in academic studies, are

they finally enrolled in the teaching force of the Government. Henceforth they are officers of the State, and enjoy the respect and confidence which they have fairly earned by their academic and professional training. Only about fifteen per cent of the teachers are women. In reference to woman's higher education Germany has remained very conservative. The German Government is loath to consider women otherwise than in her domestic relations. Hence the secondary and higher education of women is left chiefly to private institutions. A few of the German universities, by way of special and limited privilege, have been opened to women.

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.-Germany has awakened to a new industrial and commercial life. Its energetic and far-seeing Emperor is ambitious to make Germany a great world-power. In close sympathy with the practical spirit of the age, he is seeking to acquire for his people a prominent place in the markets of the world. He is interested in German colonization. For the protection of German interests abroad, he is persistently building up a great navy. But at home he is using his influence in favor of technological education, upon which, as he discerns, the industrial and commercial success of the country must ultimately rest. If German products are to compete successfully in the markets of the world, they must excel in mechanical and artistic quality. This feeling is widespread in Germany, and is gradually modernizing its education. Professor A. Riedler, rector of the Polytechnic Institute of Berlin, recently said: "The demands made by present conditions of life upon education are different from those of former times, and they are determinative. Powerful forces and influences have changed conditions of life, and education, to be correct, must be in harmony

with these conditions. Public education is not meant only to serve certain classes of society, but must promote national and political interests by stimulating productive activity." As a result of this sentiment, the traditional courses of study are being modified; and numerous technological schools, notably the Polytechnic Institute of Berlin, and many commercial institutions have been established.

THE UNIVERSITIES.-The universities, both for comprehensiveness and thoroughness of instruction, stand preeminent. Their large number is due mainly to the former subdivisions of Germany into separate States, each of which was ambitious to maintain an institution for superior instruction. Many of the universities possess a considerable endowment; but most of them receive large subsidies from the State. The studies are arranged under the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the latter comprising, besides philosophy proper, natural science, mathematics, political economy, history, geography, literature, and philology. A rector, elected annually by the professors, is charged with the administration of the affairs of the university. German students can not become full members without having completed the course of a gymnasium or real-school. The universities founded during the nineteenth century are as follows: Berlin, 1810; Munich, 1826; Breslau, 1811; Bonn, 1818; and Strasburg, 1872. The University of Berlin is the largest, with a faculty of more than two hundred professors, and a yearly attendance of about five thousand students.

B. France

The leaders

THE REVOLUTION.-The interest in popular education in France dates from the Revolution of 1789. of that movement were inspired with democratic ideas, and at the same time they believed that popular intelligence was necessary for the perpetuity of the Republic. Hence, the Convention in 1793 not only ordered the establishment of elementary schools throughout France, but also made attendance upon them compulsory. But discord at home and wars abroad, during the years immediately succeeding, prevented the execution of this wise decree.

NAPOLEON'S SYSTEM.-Having crowned himself emperor, Napoleon did not remain indifferent to the subject of general education. In 1806 he established a system of great compactness, which forms the basis of the excellent laws now in operation. He united all the teaching forces of the country into one body, which he called the University of France. This university, whose affairs were administered by a grand master, assisted by a university council, was divided into three branches: Primary instruction, provided in the elementary schools; secondary instruction, provided in the lyceums and colleges; and superior instruction, given by the faculties of arts, medicine, law, and theology. France was divided into a number of large districts called academies, which were presided over by a rector, assisted by an academic council. Schools under local supervision were to be established in each community. But Napoleon became too much absorbed in ambitious schemes of conquest to put his system into complete operation.

THE RESTORATION.-Under the Restoration, popular education languished. Though the system of Napoleon