CRITIQUE. Strong and convincing as Herbert Spencer's work is in many particulars, it seems to go somewhat astray on two fundamental points. In the first place, its conception of education lays undue stress on the objective side or purpose of school training. How to live, in what is made a material or utilitarian sense, is not the whole aim of education. There is a subjective side that is equally important and logically antecedent. It is found, not in doing, but in being; it consists in such an unfolding of the mental powers that we may readily enter into the intellectual heritage of our race, and in such a character that we habitually choose and follow what is right. No amount of physiology, chemistry, and biology; no equipment for the mechanical or practical relations of life, can take the place of culture and character, which after all are the essential requisites for "complete living." What Spencer relegates to a subordinate place in his system seems, on the basis of a humanity of intrinsic and infinite worth, to deserve the foremost consideration.

In the second place, he seems to err in the educative and disciplinary value he assigns to the natural sciences. Though his presentation of the matter is at times eloquent, his views are not borne out by the decisive test of experience. It is generally found that students who pursue merely scientific studies somehow lack insight and sympathy with what is finest in the intellectual achievements of the race. There appears to be a certain dulness or unresponsiveness of sensibilities. The reason is, perhaps, not far to seek. Inasmuch as language and literature embody the thoughts and feelings of humanity—the soul-life of our race it is evident that the best way to climb to the summits of its intellectual achievement is through a patient mastery of the elements in which the

highest culture finds expression. There is more mental uplift in one of Shakespeare's plays or in the Sermon on the Mount than in the most learned treatise on digestion or the ablest discussion of the lever.

8. CONTEMPORARY EDUCATION

GENERAL SURVEY.-There can be no doubt that education is receiving far more attention at present than at any period in the past. It is rapidly becoming universal. Popular intelligence is everywhere reckoned an element of national power and wealth, and the stability of republics is recognized as resting upon the knowledge and virtue of the people. Woman is no longer held in the base subjection of Oriental countries, but enjoys, in all enlightened nations, excellent facilities for education. New spheres of activity are open to her; and with cultivated. mind she takes a place of wider influence in society and of greater dignity in the home. The science and art of education are receiving increased attention; and in addition to a large number of normal schools for the training of teachers, our universities are establishing chairs of pedagogy. Illiteracy is being rapidly diminished, and in a few countries it has been practically annihilated.

IN THE ORIENT.-No civilized nation now fails to make provision, to a greater or less degree, for the instruction of the people. Even the unprogressive nations of the Orient are affected by the Christian education of the West. China, with its strange conservatism, is relaxing its former rigor against foreign institutions. Many schools have. been established by Christian missionaries, especially of the Catholic Church; and, besides a workshop at Shanghai, and a polytechnic school in the province of Futs

chien conducted by foreign teachers, a university on the European plan was opened at Peking in 1868 under imperial patronage. Japan has been thoroughly modernized in education. Since 1872 that country has had a comprehensive school system, including primary schools, academies, normal schools, colleges, and universities. These schools, modeled chiefly after those of America, are supplied with modern furniture and apparatus, and are conducted upon scientific methods. Both sexes have the same educational advantages up to the normal school. The courses of instruction are substantially the same as in schools of corresponding grade in Europe and America, save that English and other modern languages take the place of Latin and Greek.

Under the sovereignty of England, the system of eduIcation in India has been transformed and modernized. Public instruction now forms a department of the government, and a network of schools of various grades is being extended over the whole country. Some institutions are entirely supported by the Government, while others, established by local effort or missionary zeal, receive grants in aid. The efficiency of schools of every kind is maintained by a careful system of inspection. In spite of strong national prejudice, the education of girls, especially in the regions where Christian missionaries are influential, is making progress. The apex of the educational system of India is found in the Universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Lahore. These universities, after the model of London University, are examining bodies; and, though not giving academic instruction, they control, by means of their examinations, the entire course of higher education. It may be safely predicted that sooner or later India will be transformed by Western civilization.

IN THE OCCIDENT.—But it is in Europe and America that the tendencies toward universal education have manifested themselves most fully, and accomplished the greatest results. Though some countries are more advanced than others, every Christian nation now provides with tolerable completeness for popular instruction. Greece and Italy adopted during the past century systems of education more comprehensive and useful than were ever contemplated by Plato and Quintilian. Germany, France, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal— all have at present some system of popular education; and most of them have adopted the system of compulsory attendance. During the past few decades England has shown great interest in popular education, and granted annually, in connection with a system of thorough inspection, ever-increasing subsidies to public schools. The educational systems of several of these countries will later be considered more in detail.

NOTEWORTHY TENDENCIES.-There are certain great tendencies to-day that are expanding and modifying the processes of education. They are not confined to a single country, but are almost world-wide in their extent. The changes they have wrought, as will be seen, are very important.

1. It may be fairly claimed that the scientific spirit dominates our age. Investigation-systematic, minute, and prolonged-has in large measure supplanted metaphysical speculation. Tradition has lost much of its power; and with their growing intelligence men are less willing to be guided by the dicta of mere authority. Careful and patient toilers are at work in every department of learning; and Nature, questioned as never before, is gradually yielding up her secrets. The same patient methods of in

vestigation are applied to the study of the mind, the origin of man, and the history of the past. The theory of evolution, sometimes with greater or less modification, has generally been accepted, and, like the law of gravitation or the Copernican system, has greatly changed our views of nature and of history. Many old beliefs have been modified or destroyed; but the general result of the scientific spirit has been to give us greater breadth of thought and a clearer insight into the works of God.

As a natural consequence of this vast enlargement of the field of human knowledge, the courses of study in schools of all grades have been expanded and modified. In the primary schools we have what are called nature studies, through which the children are made acquainted with the elements of science. In the secondary schools and colleges the curricula have been made to include such studies as physics, chemistry, botany, geology, astronomy, and physiology; and in order to make room for them, the elective system or parallel courses have been adopted. And in the universities the natural sciences and related subjects have been divided and distributed among specialists who push their investigations to the remotest confines of knowledge. These innovations upon the traditional courses of study have encountered stout resistance; but slowly and surely the scientific spirit of the age has proceeded with its conquests.

2. The moral and religious spirit of the time is worthy of special note. The conflict between dogma and science, which at times has been sharp, has not been prejudicial to genuine Christianity. Superstition is rapidly becoming a thing of the past, and the emphasis of religious teaching is now laid upon fundamental and practical truths. The gospel is looked upon as a rule of life for the present