4. ABSTRACT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION

(1550-1700)

THREE TENDENCIES.-After the rise of Protestantism various influences, often in conflict with one another, control the course of events. During the period extending from the middle of the sixteenth to the beginning of the eighteenth century, three leading tendencies are apparent in education. These may be characterized as the theological, the humanistic, and the practical. As the theological tendency, however, maintained an ascendency over the others in the schools, it is allowed to give name to the period. The humanisti& tendency, which was most marked in secondary schools, was an echo from the revival of learning.// The pra tical or realistic tendency was a reaction against the sterile learning cultivated by ecclesiasticism and humanism.

THEOLOGICAL ACTIVITY.-The period under discussion was one of extraordinary theological activity. A large share of the intellectual strength of the age was turned to theology. Every phase of religious truth, particularly in its doctrinal and speculative aspects, was brought under investigation. Theology was elevated into a science, and doctrinal systems were developed with logical precision, and extended even to trifling subtleties.

But this great effort to reduce the whole body of religious truth to an infallible logical statement was attended with unfortunate results. Theologians became bigoted and intolerant. In their efforts to give Christian doctrine a scientific form, they lost its spirit. Losing its earlier freedom and life, Protestantism degenerated in large measure

into what has been called "dead orthodoxy." The intellectual apprehension of elaborate creeds was made the basis of Christian fellowship. Christian life counted for little, and the Protestant world broke up into opposing factions. Says Kurtz, who is disposed to apologize for this period as far as possible: "Like medieval scholasticism, in its concern for logic theology almost lost vitality. Orthodoxy degenerated into orthodoxism; externally, not only discerning essential diversities, but disregarding the broad basis of a common faith, and running into odious and unrestrained controversy; internally, holding to the form of pure doctrine, but neglecting cordially to embrace it, and to live consistently with it."

STUDIES AND DISCIPLINE.-The schools, which stand in close relation to religion, were naturally influenced in a large measure by the theological tendencies of the age. Theological interests imposed upon the schools a narrow range of subjects, a mechanical method of instruction, and a cruel discipline. The principle of authority, exacting a blind submission of the pupil, prevailed in the schools of every grade. The young were regarded, not as tender plants to be carefully nurtured and developed, but as untamed animals to be repressed and broken. "Education,” says Dittes, “in the form that it had assumed in the sixteenth century, could not furnish a complete human culture. the higher institutions, and even in the wretched town schools, Latin was the Moloch to which countless minds fell an offering in return for the blessing granted to a few. A dead knowledge of words took the place of a living knowledge of things. Latin school-books supplanted the book of Nature, the book of life, the book of mankind. And in the popular schools youthful minds were tortured over the spelling-book and catechism. The method of

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teaching was almost everywhere, in the primary as well as in the higher schools, a mechanical and compulsory drill in unintelligible formulas; the pupils were obliged to learn, but they were not educated to see and hear, to think and prove, and were not led to a true independence and personal perfection; the teachers found their function in teaching the prescribed text, not in harmoniously developing the young human being according to the laws of Nature-a process, moreover, that lay under the ban of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. The discipline answered to the content and spirit of the instruction; it was harsh, and even barbarous; the principle was to tame the pupils, not to educate them. They were to hold themselves motionless, that the school exercises might not be disturbed; what took place in their minds, and how their several characters were constituted, the school pedants did not understand and appreciate.”

MULTIPLICATION OF SCHOOLS. This is the darker side of the theological or ecclesiastical influence. In other particulars it was favorable to education. In Protestant countries it led to a multiplication of schools of every grade; and in Catholic countries, the Jesuits in particular displayed an extraordinary activity in secondary and higher education. The country or village schools were connected with the local church, and were usually taught by the sexton or some other subordinate officer. In addition to the catechism and singing the course of instruction included reading, writing, and arithmetic.

With the town schools it was somewhat better. The range of instruction was of a higher order; the theological influence was felt in a less degree; the needs of practical life were better kept in view. But these schools were still very far from being models. They did not emancipate themselves from the mechanical methods and cruel disci

pline then in vogue, and the teachers, as a rule, were unfit for their vocation. They were usually people who for some reason had been unsuccessful in other pursuits. They were poorly paid, and but little respected. In the school ordinances of the time they are admonished to refrain from cruel discipline, and to maintain, both in and out of school, a becoming deportment.

EDUCATION OF PRINCES.-The education of princes was usually in the hands of special instructors. As the princes of Europe exerted great influence in ecclesiastical affairs, especial care was exercised in their religious culture. Whether Catholic, Lutheran, or Reformed, they were thoroughly drilled in the distinctive doctrines of their respective branches of the Church. The daily routine of George III of Saxony, who was born in 1647, may be taken as a type of princely education. At seven o'clock in the morning he arose with a brief prayer. While he was being dressed, the attendants sang a hymn; then with the court he went to morning prayers; afterward he retired to his apartment for private worship, or on days of preaching to the church. Then followed two hours of study, which began with a brief prayer for divine assistance and concluded with a psalm of thanksgiving. The hour from ten to eleven was devoted to recreation. After dinner several hours were devoted again to study, including instruction in dancing. From five to six recreation and supper; at eight, prayer with the whole court, after which the prince withdrew to his apartment, and after private worship, retired promptly at nine o'clock.

SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.-The numerous school orders adopted in Protestant Germany made provision for the education of girls. In every community separate schools, presided over by well-approved female teachers, were to

be maintained at public cost. The range of studies was narrow, but these schools laid the foundation for better things. The school order of Braunschweig, promulgated in 1548, may be taken as an example. It required that in all towns and villages girls' schools should be established, in which reading and writing, the singing of hymns, and Luther's catechism should be taught. The pupils were to read stories from the German Bible at home, and at school repeat the substance of them from memory. The school day embraced two hours in the forenoon and two hours in the afternoon. Before leaving the school each day, the girls were required to sing a psalm or hymn, in order that they might learn singing with delight and without effort. An honorable matron was to be chosen as teacher, who loved God's Word and was fond of reading in the Bible and other good books. She was to be paid out of the common treasury from twenty to thirty florins a year; and in case the towns were able to afford it, she was to have an assistant with a salary of twenty florins a year.

LATIN SCHOOLS.-In the Latin schools, or gymnasia, humanism asserted itself by the side of theology. As indicated by the name, Latin formed the chief subject of study. These schools, some of which became famous, were founded in large numbers in the sixteenth century, and some of them, especially in England, have continued to the present day. In Germany, Camerarius established a flourishing school at Nuremberg (1526), Trotzendorf at Goldberg (1531), Sturm at Strasburg (1538), and Neander at Ilfeld (1543). These distinguished school directors were all more or less influenced by Melanchthon, with whom they had maintained cordial relations as pupils or friends. Academic gymnasia, which occupied a middle ground between the Latin schools and universities and were provided espe