as little jar and friction as possible. This is the view of Milton, who has said, in his famous definition: "I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, of peace and war.”

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Herbert Spencer has presented very forcibly the objective or external relations of education. How to live," he says, "that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem which comprehends every special problem is the right ruling of conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which Nature supplies; how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others; how to live completely. And this being the great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge; and the only rational mode of judging of any educational course is to judge in what degree it discharges such function."

DEVELOPMENT AND KNOWLEDGE.-There are two elements, logically distinguishable but practically inseparable, entering into education. These are the development of the mind and the acquisition of knowledge. Without mental development the individual lacks strength to grapple with the problems of life; and without knowledge he can not wisely employ his power. The great law underlying physical and mental development is self-activity. Every truly educated man is self-made. The various functions

∞

of the mind, whether perceiving, feeling, judging, or will. ing, must for a long period be called into frequent exercise in connection with objects, facts, relations, and truths, in order to become active, obedient, and strong. The basis of this activity is knowledge, which is as necessary for the development of the mind as food is for the growth of the body. "As food is indispensable to physical growth," says Johonnot, "so without knowledge the mind can not grow. While the mind, from the first, possesses all the germs of mental power, it is the appropriation of knowledge alone that converts its latent and apparently passive capacities into active capabilities." Education is not creative; it can not give what Nature has withheld. It is limited by the pupil's individuality, which it can ennoble but not radically change.

SOURCE OF PRINCIPLES.-Inasmuch as education consists primarily in developing the various innate powers of man, it is evident that the principles which should determine educational practise are to be sought in human nature. The laws of human development must be understood before the methods of training can be accurately adjusted to the attainment of that end. The leading facts pertaining to the body must be ascertained before a complete scheme for increasing physical health and vigor can be devised; the chief principles of intellectual activity must be understood before the rules for its development can be fully given. It is true that much may be learned by actual experiment in teaching, and that many useful devices may be hit upon; but without a comprehensive acquaintance with the nature of man the improvements thus made in the art of education are necessarily fragmentary and uncertain. In its early stages, whether in individual or national practise, educational effort is lim

ited to what is experimental and fragmentary; but as education progresses, it seeks to attain those general principles that should determine the character and application of methods.

STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY.-The study of educational history, by bringing the whole field within the range of our vision, broadens our views in regard to education. By acquainting us with the views and methods of the past, it spares us the cost of repeating experiments and mistakes. There is no nation of antiquity, no matter how remote in time or space, but has its lessons for us. Furthermore, the history of education reveals the origin and principles of present educational systems, and indicates what is correct in theory and valuable in practise. It inspires educational workers with greater zeal by presenting the examples of self-sacrificing and illustrious. teachers in the past. No teacher can study the lives of Luther, Comenius, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and many others— men who, with heroic spirit and achievement, imparted a new impulse to human progress-without perceiving higher possibilities in his vocation, and becoming stronger in his work.

DIVISION OF SUBJECT.-Asia is the birthplace of the human race. The march of progress, following the course of the sun, has been westward through Europe to America. Here many problems of religion, science, government, and education will probably receive their final solution. Following the course of human progress, the history of education naturally divides itself as follows:

I. The Oriental countries, including China, India, Persia, Palestine, and Egypt.

II. The ancient classical nations, Greece and Rome.

III. The Christian education of Europe and America,

which is divided into (1) the period before the rise of Protestantism and (2) the period after that great

movement.

In this classification no account is taken of uncivilized peoples, since education with them consists almost exclusively in training the body for war and the chase. Their education is thus too primitive in its character to bring it within the scope of our present undertaking.

I

THE ORIENTAL NATIONS

GENERAL SURVEY.-A striking fact, which throws great light upon Eastern education, is to be noted in reference to Oriental life. The individual there counts for nothing. A despotic external authority controls his destiny. Education does not aim to develop a perfect man or woman, but to prepare its subjects for their place in the established order of things. It does not aim to beautify the stone, but simply to fit it for its place in the wall. The source of this all-controlling authority varies in the different countries. In China it is fossilized tradition; in India, caste; in Persia, the State; among the Jews, the theocracy. In all the Oriental countries this external authority determines the character of education; and, if this idea is firmly grasped, it will facilitate a thorough understanding of the educational systems of the East.

1. CHINA

CHARACTER OF PEOPLE.-The Chinese empire comprises a fourth part of the population of the globe. Its people belong to the Mongolian race, whose genius is shown in the early invention of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. Their character presents many points of interest. They are industrious and economical, and in the relations of every-day life they