which appears to have been the reason of its introduction, this being one of the ways in which it is thought that a freeman should pass his leisure.”

SUMMARY. Notwithstanding his greatness, Aristotle was hemmed in by the limitations of his time and country. The end of education with him was the useful and happy citizen. Though recognizing, in some degree, the rights of the family and of the individual, he gave, as Plato had done, an undue importance to the State. He failed to grasp the worth of the individual in its fulness, and consequently his system of education contemplated only the freemen or ruling class of the commonwealth. The slaves and artisans, as well as the women, were excluded from its advantages. Though containing, as we have seen, beautiful ideals and high ethical aims, the educational system of Aristotle was content to leave a large part of the population in ignorance and degradation.

2. ROME

HISTORY.-Ancient Rome, founded 754 B. C., has a history extending through more than a thousand years. Beginning as a single city, it gradually extended its power until it embraced all the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean. From a condition of weakness and barbarism it rose to be the imposing mistress of the world and the chief representative of human progress. It finally gathered into its arms the elements of Grecian and Oriental culture, and, as its end drew nigh, freely scattered them over the rest of Europe. Rome has been the bearer of culture to the modern world. As a matter of course education varied during this long period of

development. It will be sufficient in our present inquiry to speak first of the earlier and more austere type of Roman education, and afterward to discuss more at length the educational system in the age of Augustus, when the imperial city produced its richest fruits in literary culture.

CHARACTER.-Roman character, which lies at the basis of Roman history and culture, deserves a passing word. It is in striking contrast with Grecian character. Both are interesting, but one-sided and defective. The Greek, with his restless, lively, emotional nature, was esthetic, worshiping the beautiful; the Roman, with his rugged strength, was practical, reverencing the useful. These types of character are complementary of each other; and when united and ennobled by Christianity they present the highest form of manhood. To the Roman, life was serious; his manner was stately and grave. The finest feelings of humanity, the domestic and social affections, the refined pleasures of literature and art, were sacrificed for the sterner duties of framing laws, constructing aqueducts and highways, declaring wars, and leading armies. The spirit of conquest characterized the Romans, and made them utilitarian in all their views and aims. Utilitarianism determined education. "The children of the Romans," says Cicero, "are brought up that they may some time be useful to the country, and hence they should be taught the nature of the State and the regulations of our forefathers. Our country has borne and educated us on the condition that we consecrate to its service the best powers of our spirit, talent, and understanding; therefore we must learn the arts through which we can serve the State, for I hold that to be the greatest wisdom and the highest virtue."

FAMILY LIFE.-The family life of Rome marked a notable advance over that of Greece and the Oriental countries. The worth of woman began to receive proper recognition. Polygamy was not tolerated. In theory, the husband was unlimited master, and even held the right of life and death over his children; but, in practise, the wife, by her virtues and tact, softened the sternness of his authority and arrived at undisputed control in the household. The type of womanhood produced in the best. days of Rome was admirable. Its leading traits were attractive dignity, strong motherly instincts, and lovely domestic virtues. Not diamonds or pearls, but her two rosy-cheeked boys, were Cornelia's most precious jewels. The Roman matron managed her household tastefully and frugally, and found delight in caring for her children. For the first six or seven years she was their only teacher; and with the utmost fidelity she formed their language, ideas, and moral sentiments. It was not till the age of degeneracy had set in that Roman mothers intrusted their children to nurses and pedagogues.

EARLIER PERIOD.—The earlier period of Roman education admitted but a small literary element. Education was thoroughly utilitarian, fitting the young Roman to fulfil the various duties of householder, citizen, and soldier. It was not an education for cultured retirement, but for efficient activity in the State. Its method was that of correct example. "The method of the old Roman education," says Monroe, "is essentially that of the apprentice system; the youth learns by observation and direct imitation of the master in the army, at the farm, in the courts and the forum. To this training is added a small amount of instruction by the parent or by the master. In the latter period the school supplants the home and the

camp and forum, and this early training gives place to the formal instruction of the rhetorical school.”

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The elder Cato may be regarded as the embodiment of this earlier Roman spirit. He used his influence to repress the influx of Grecian learning. He wrote to his son: Believe me, as if a prophet had said it, that the Greeks are a worthless and incorrigible race. If this people diffuse their literature among us, it will corrupt everything." His fears, not of the literature of the Greeks, but of their vices, were only too well founded; and as has happened at later periods in the world's history, brilliant culture went hand in hand with deep moral degradation. The educational practise of this earlier period is well exemplified by Cato. As Plutarch tells us, this sturdy Roman taught his son to read, "although he had a servant, a very good grammarian, called Chilo, who taught many others; but he thought not fit, as he himself said, to have his son reprimanded by a slave, or pulled, it may be, by the ears when found tardy in his lesson; nor would he have him owe to a servant the obligation of so great a thing as his learning; he himself, therefore, taught him his grammar, law, and his gymnastic exercises. Nor did he only show him, too, how to throw a dart, to fight in armor, and to ride, but to box also, and to endure both heat and cold, and to swim over the most rapid and roughest rivers. He says, likewise, that he wrote histories, in large characters, with his own hand, that so his son, without stirring out of the house, might learn to know about his countrymen and forefathers; nor did he less abstain from speaking anything obscene before his son, than if it had been in the presence of the sacred virgins, called vestals."

PRIMARY EDUCATION.-In the age of Augustus a

clearly defined system of schools had been developed. Elementary instruction began with the seventh year, and embraced reading, writing, and arithmetic. The teacher of the primary school was called literator. The general custom was to teach the names and order of the letters before their forms a method that Quintilian properly criticizes. In connection with spelling and reading, great care was bestowed upon pronunciation. By degrees the easier poets were read and explained, and choice passages were learned by heart. Writing was taught by inscribing a copy on a waxen tablet or board, and allowing the pupil to follow the outline of the letters with the stylus. After reading and writing came the art of reckoning, to which importance was attached because of its value in business. The fingers and an abacus of pebbles were extensively employed; and, through repeated mental exercises, the pupil was accustomed to compute with rapidity.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.-The primary training of the child ended with the twelfth year, when he was handed over to the literatus in order to receive more advanced instruction. The Greek language was taken up, and grammar was carefully studied. For the culture of the understanding, the best writers, particularly the poets, were employed, among whom may be mentioned Homer, Virgil, Æsop, and Cicero. Poems and orations were committed to memory. Especial importance was attached to history, and several Romans have won celebrity by the extent and accuracy of their historical knowledge. Poetry, oratory, philosophy, and criticism were other subjects studied under the literatus.

HIGHER EDUCATION.-At fifteen or sixteen the young Roman assumed the dress of manhood, known as the toga virilis. It devolved upon him to choose his calling, and