who are destined to unprofessional employments and trades, the most important thing after religion is an acquaintance with the indispensable arts of reading, writing, and reckoning; but the elements of other branches of knowledge should not be neglected, especially the elements of natural science, geography, history, and government, which, however, are to be brought forward incidentally and later."

DISCIPLINE.—The following rules are taken from Francke's instructions to his teachers upon the manner of exercising school-discipline. They exhibit his clear pedagogical insight, his piety, and his sympathy and love for children:

1. In exercising discipline, which is necessary and conformable to the will of God, the teacher should pray God first of all to give him the necessary wisdom.

2. As most teachers seek to correct children by rigorous punishment rather than by gaining their love through patience, forbearance, and affection, and as young teachers in particular are lacking in paternal solicitude and Christian gentleness, they ought to supplicate the Lord, without ceasing, to fill them with love for the young who are confided to them, and to deliver them from all harshness and carnal sufficiency.

3. The teacher should learn to govern himself, without which he can not properly govern others.

4. A teacher should maintain discipline over his pupils, and should exhort and punish them when necessary; nevertheless, education should not be hard and severe, but gentle and paternal.

5. A teacher ought never to punish a child in anger. 6. A teacher ought not to be ill-humored, but cordial and kind, like a father.

7. Children ought not to be punished for little faults inherent in their age, but should be encouraged to be more careful.

8. A Christian teacher should beware of becoming the occasion of disorder which he is to punish.

9. Children should not be abused with harsh epithets. It is contrary to the spirit of Christianity.

10. A child ought never to be scolded because it can not understand. If it is dull of comprehension, the teacher should redouble his efforts in its behalf.

11. A teacher should study the disposition of his pupils, as delicate and gentle natures are not to be treated like coarse and hardened natures.

12. In avoiding too great severity the teacher should not fall into the opposite extreme, and become the sport of the children.

13. With youth over fifteen years of age the teacher should abstain from harsh words, threats, and blows, by which they may become embittered. It is better to take them separately, talk to them kindly-sometimes even pray with them. If these means are fruitless, let them be brought before the school board, or punished in the presence of a colleague.

6. ABSTRACT HUMAN EDUCATION

A NEW MOVEMENT.-The eighteenth century witnessed a new movement which has been characterized as abstract human education. In general, it ignores or rejects revealed religion, and bases its educational principles on the purely natural. Though as one-sided as the theological tendency, it has the great merit of stimulating a careful

study of man in the interests of correct educational methods. In this way it rendered invaluable service to the cause of educational progress.

TWOFOLD TENDENCIES.-This movement exhibited two entirely different tendencies-the realistic tendency, which emphasized the study of Nature, and the humanistic tendency, which emphasized the study of words. Both of these tendencies, which had been in conflict to a greater or less degree during the preceding century, agreed in eliminating revealed religion from education.

This dual movement admits of an easy explanation. In the great process of human development extremes tend to beget extremes. The path of human progress is zigzag. Throughout the seventeenth century, which we have just considered, a mere formal religion remained in the ascendency. It continued the controlling factor in education, in spite of the attacks of pietists and educational reformers. It long thwarted the confident expectations of Comenius. But a religion which has lost its vital power can not hold a permanent ascendency over the world. Its weakness exposes it to attack.

DEISM.-A skeptical movement, known as Deism, arose in England, and gradually extended over the whole of Europe. It was a religion of nature-based, as its adherents thought, on common sense. It rejected the supernatural. From the deistic or skeptical standpoint, the education of the time, unduly controlled by narrow ecclesiastical influences, was judged defective. Educational reformers representing the deistic tendency arose, and new movements were inaugurated.

A. Rousseau

BIOGRAPHICAL.-There are few men who have exerted a greater influence upon education than the celebrated author, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He was born at Geneva, in 1712, the son of a poor watchmaker. As a child he was feeble in body and shy in disposition, but at the same time he was endowed with remarkable vivacity in thought and feeling. He was exceedingly fond of reading, in which he was encouraged by his father; and, among other works, many of which were worthless, he early devoured Bossuet, Ovid, and Plutarch. "Thus began to be formed within me," he says, that heart, at once so proud and so tender, that effeminate but yet indomitable character which, ever oscillating between weakness and courage, between indulgence and virtue, has to the last placed me in contradiction with myself, and has brought it to pass that abstinence and enjoyment, pleasure and wisdom, have alike eluded me."

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INCONSISTENCIES.-It is not worth while to follow him through the unimportant events of his life. His boyhood was by no means worthy of imitation; and in his Confessions, a work written with the utmost frankness late in life, he does not attempt to conceal theft and lying. He ran away from an engraver to whom he had been apprenticed, and during the remainder of his life he was a wanderer who enjoyed but temporary seasons of repose. His life was a singular paradox. He possessed extraordinary genius, and his books are filled with the noblest sentiments and the most stirring eloquence; but his life frequently fell into unpardonable baseness. While he wrote splendid pages on the beauty of domestic life, he placed his own

children in a foundling hospital. "I do evil," he confessed," but I love good. My heart is pure."

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ÉMILE.-Rousseau has exerted his influence upon education through a single work, half treatise and half romance. It is, as he himself says, a collection of thoughts and observations, without order and almost without connection." It is entitled Emile, or Concerning Education. In many respects a radical book, it is flung defiantly in the face of prevalent usage. Go directly contrary to custom," he says, " and you will nearly always be right." The work abounds in mingled truth and error, and needs to be read with great discrimination; but many of its truths are fundamental, and ever since their publication they have been gradually forcing an entrance into educational practise. "Not Rousseau's individual rules," says the great German Richter, "many of which may be erroneous without injury to the whole, but the spirit of education which fills and animates the work, have shaken to their foundations and purified all the schoolrooms and even the nurseries in Europe. In no previous work on education was the ideal so richly and beautifully combined with actual observation as in his."

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES.-Rousseau was largely indebted to his predecessors, especially to Locke, whom he frequently quotes. The two fundamental truths which have perhaps exerted the widest influence are these: 1. Nature is to be studied and followed; 2. Education is an unbroken unity, extending from early childhood to maturity. It is true that both of these principles had been advocated by Comenius, but it was through the charm of Rousseau's work that they made the widest impression upon the educational thinking of Europe. Along with positions wholly indefensible, Rousseau urges, in admirable style,