pline then in vogue, and the teachers, as a rule, were unfit for their vocation. They were usually people who for some reason had been unsuccessful in other pursuits. They were poorly paid, and but little respected. In the school ordinances of the time they are admonished to refrain from cruel discipline, and to maintain, both in and out of school, a becoming deportment.

EDUCATION OF PRINCES.-The education of princes was usually in the hands of special instructors. As the princes of Europe exerted great influence in ecclesiastical affairs, especial care was exercised in their religious culture. Whether Catholic, Lutheran, or Reformed, they were thoroughly drilled in the distinctive doctrines of their respective branches of the Church. The daily routine of George III of Saxony, who was born in 1647, may be taken as a type of princely education. At seven o'clock in the morning he arose with a brief prayer. While he was being dressed, the attendants sang a hymn; then with the court he went to morning prayers; afterward he retired to his apartment for private worship, or on days of preaching to the church. Then followed two hours of study, which began with a brief prayer for divine assistance and concluded with a psalm of thanksgiving. The hour from ten to eleven was devoted to recreation. After dinner several hours were devoted again to study, including instruction in dancing. From five to six recreation and supper; at eight, prayer with the whole court, after which the prince withdrew to his apartment, and after private worship, retired promptly at nine o'clock.

SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS.-The numerous school orders adopted in Protestant Germany made provision for the education of girls. In every community separate schools, presided over by well-approved female teachers, were to

be maintained at public cost. The range of studies was narrow, but these schools laid the foundation for better things. The school order of Braunschweig, promulgated in 1548, may be taken as an example. It required that in all towns and villages girls' schools should be established, in which reading and writing, the singing of hymns, and Luther's catechism should be taught. The pupils were to read stories from the German Bible at home, and at school repeat the substance of them from memory. The school day embraced two hours in the forenoon and two hours in the afternoon. Before leaving the school each day, the girls were required to sing a psalm or hymn, in order that they might learn singing with delight and without effort. An honorable matron was to be chosen as teacher, who loved God's Word and was fond of reading in the Bible and other good books. She was to be paid out of the common treasury from twenty to thirty florins a year; and in case the towns were able to afford it, she was to have an assistant with a salary of twenty florins a year.

LATIN SCHOOLS.-In the Latin schools, or gymnasia, humanism asserted itself by the side of theology. As indicated by the name, Latin formed the chief subject of study. These schools, some of which became famous, were founded in large numbers in the sixteenth century, and some of them, especially in England, have continued to the present day. In Germany, Camerarius established a flourishing school at Nuremberg (1526), Trotzendorf at Goldberg (1531), Sturm at Strasburg (1538), and Neander at Ilfeld (1543). These distinguished school directors were all more or less influenced by Melanchthon, with whom they had maintained cordial relations as pupils or friends. Academic gymnasia, which occupied a middle ground between the Latin schools and universities and were provided espe

cially for such students as were too young to enter upon the freedom and dangers of university life, were founded at Danzig, Hamburg, Bremen, Zürich, and elsewhere. In England the great public schools of Shrewsbury (1551), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1567), Merchant Taylors' (1561), and Harrow (1571), were established. As Sturm represented most completely the humanistic tendency of his age, it is worth while to consider his educational work in some detail.

A. John Sturm

BIOGRAPHICAL.-John Sturm was born at Schleiden, Prussia, in 1507; he died at Strasburg in 1589. After teaching at Louvain and Paris, he was appointed rector of the gymnasium at Strasburg, over which he presided for forty years. He boasted of his institution that it reproduced the best periods of Athens and Rome; and, in fact, he succeeded in giving to his adopted city the name of New Athens. In religion he was a Calvinist, and he is justly regarded as the greatest educator that the Reformed Church produced during this period. More than any one else, perhaps, he gave shape to the secondary classical instruction of Europe and America for the next two hundred and fifty years.

AIM OF EDUCATION.-Sturm had a definite idea of what he was to accomplish in his work at Strasburg. His ideal of education was that of Protestantism in general, namely, an intelligent Christian manhood. "A wise and persuasive piety," he said, "should be the aim of our studies. But, were all pious, then the student should be distinguished from him who is unlettered, by scientific culture and eloquence. Hence, knowledge, and purity and elegance of dic

tion, should become the aim of scholarship, and toward its attainments both teachers and pupils should sedulously bend their every effort."

For attaining this culture the chief instrumentality was Latin. It constituted, as we shall see, the backbone of the course of study, and its use was enjoined upon both teachers and pupils. The teachers were to use German only in explanations; and the students were forbidden to speak German even on their way to or from school. It was permitted, however, to vary Latin with Greek! The supreme aim of Sturm was to Latinize his students. "Cicero," he said, "was but twenty years old when he delivered his speeches in behalf of P. Quintius and Sextus Roscius; but in these latter days where is the man, of fourscore even, who could bequeath to the world such masterpieces of eloquence? And yet, there are books enough, and there is intellect enough. What, then, do we need further? I reply, the Latin language, and a correct method of teaching. Both these we must have, before we can arrive at the summit of eloquence."

METHOD AND DISCIPLINE.-In his Classic Letters, Sturm clearly sets forth his ideas of method and discipline. Step by step, with a careful cultivation of the memory, the student is to mount from the alphabet to the mastery of elegant discourse. Nothing is to be forgotten. "To keep what has been acquired,” he says, “is no less an art than the first acquisition of it." The students are not to be tasked beyond their powers. The structure of language as revealed in grammar and rhetoric is made prominent from beginning to end. The students are to be drilled in the use of dialectic or logic. Throughout the gymnasium course the discipline is to be sufficiently strict. “In these classes," says Sturm, " the boys must be kept under the discipline of the rod, nor should they learn accord

ing to their own choice, but after the good pleasure of the teacher."

The gymnasium at Strasburg owed its reputation in no small degree to the unity of method and purpose that Sturm knew how to give it. He was a model rector. He advised his teachers as to the best methods of doing their work, and cheered them on in their tasks. He reminded them that all were working in a common cause, and that their labors were mutually complementary. Their work of the upper classes could not be done successfully, unless a good foundation had been previously laid; and the work of the lower classes would be largely in vain, unless it was completed in the subsequent courses. All the teachers were to follow the same method, and thus make the gymnasium a well-ordered machine for turning out classically trained scholars.

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POPULARITY OF THE SCHOOL.-In a few years Sturm's school became famous, and attracted students from all parts of Europe. "The man was," to quote the words of Raumer, of one piece, a whole man- -a man of character, in whom strength of will was admirably united with force and tact in execution. Hence, it is not to be wondered at that Sturm found recognition among his contemporaries, and enjoyed their highest confidence. In 1578 the Strasburg school numbered several thousand pupils, among them about two hundred of noble birth, twenty-four counts and barons, and three princes. Not simply from Germany, but from the most different countries, from Portugal and Poland, Denmark, France, and England, youths were sent to Sturm. But his pedagogical activity was not limited to the Strasburg Gymnasium; in wide circles he exerted by counsel and example, and through his pupils, a very great influence as a second Preceptor Germania."

COURSE OF STUDY.-The course of study at the Stras