previously existing to some extent, received their perfected organization through Bishop Chrodegang in the eighth century. The priests connected with each cathedral church were organized into a monastic brotherhood, one of whose foremost duties was to establish and conduct schools. These were designed chiefly for the instruction of candidates for the priesthood, but were, at the same time, accessible to others. The instruction in these schools was very much the same as in the convent-schools, embracing the seven liberal arts, but laying a little more stress on religious subjects.

The parochial schools were established in the separate parishes under the supervision of the priest. They were designed to acquaint the youth with the elements of Christian doctrine, to prepare them for intelligent participation in public worship, and especially to introduce them into church membership. Their function was similar to that of the catechetical schools of the primitive Church. Reading and writing did not usually form any part of the course of study. The discipline in these, as in all the other schools of the middle ages, was rough and severe, the rod being unsparingly used.

C. Charlemagne

THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.-The Holy Roman Empire was the great secular power which throughout the middle ages stood side by side with the ecclesiastical power. Charlemagne may be regarded as its founder. By his numerous conquests, which recall the prowess of Cæsar, he extended his dominion over a large part of Europe. In the year 800, as he was kneeling in prayer before the high altar in St. Peter's at Rome, the pope

unexpectedly placed upon his head the crown of the Cæsars. Though this great secular power in later centuries gave rise to bitter conflicts, it was at first regarded as the ally and defender of the Church. Its office was to guard man's secular interests, as that of the latter was to guard his spiritual interests. "The pope, as vicar in matters spiritual,” says Bryce, "is to lead men to eternal life; the emperor, as vicar in matters temporal, must so control them in their dealings with one another that they may be able to pursue undisturbed the spiritual life, and thereby attain the same supreme and common end of everlasting happiness." From the days of Charlemagne the empire exerted more or less influence upon the education of the middle ages.

LABORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.-The labors of Charlemagne for the moral and intellectual elevation of his people were intelligent and fruitful. He sought to multiply educational facilities on a large scale, and he even went so far as to contemplate the organization of a popular school system. The sphere of the parochial schools was enlarged, and the village priests were required to teach not only religion, but also reading, arithmetic, and singing.

EFFORTS AT REFORM.-In 787, acting upon the advice of Alcuin, Charlemagne made an effort to reform and improve the schools of the empire. Accordingly he published a capitulary, which says: "We esteem it useful not only that care should be exercised to live orderly and religiously in the bishoprics and monasteries entrusted to our care by the grace of God, but also that all those who by God's help are able to teach should give instruction in the sciences. For although it is better to do than to know, yet it is necessary to know in order to be able to do. . . . Hence, we admonish you not only not to neg

lect the study of the sciences, but also to strive after the ability to fathom easily and certainly the secrets of holy Scripture. But, since there are in the same allegories, figures, and the like, it is evident that he will best understand them in their true spiritual sense who is well instructed in the sciences. Hence, let men be chosen for such work who possess willingness and ability to learn, and art to teach."

PALACE SCHOOL.-Charlemagne exhibited a great thirst for knowledge, and was himself a model of diligence in study. He invited to his court from all parts of Europe the most distinguished scholars, of whom Alcuin, of England, the most learned man of his time, is best known. With these he maintained interesting and intimate relations, presiding at their assemblies and sharing in their discussions. He established a model school at court, and sometimes visited it in person to note the progress of the pupils. It is related of him that he once placed the diligent pupils on his right, and the idle ones on his left; and, when he found that the latter were chiefly sons of noble parents, he addressed them thus: "Because you are rich and the sons of noblemen you think that your riches and birth are enough, and that you have no need of those studies which would do you so much honor. You think only of dress, play, and pleasure; but I tell you that I attach no importance to this nobility and wealth which bring you consideration; and, if you do not speedily make up by assiduous study for the time you have lost in frivolity, never will you obtain anything from Charles.”

RESULTS. The efforts of Charlemagne were not unavailing. A general interest and activity in education were stimulated throughout the empire. A letter of Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans, gives us an interesting

glimpse into the character of at least some of the schools established at this time. Having received his promotion at the hands of Charles, the bishop was especially active in carrying out the wishes of his sovereign. "Let the priests," he says, "hold schools in the towns and villages, and if any of the faithful wish to entrust their children to them for the learning of letters let them not refuse to receive and teach such children. Moreover, let them teach them from pure affection, remembering that it is written, 'the wise shall shine as the splendor of the firmament,' and 'they that instruct many in righteousness shall shine as the stars forever and forever.' And let them exact no price from the children for their teaching, nor receive anything from them, save what their parents may offer voluntarily and from affection."

D. Secular Education

TWO DIRECTIONS.-In the latter half of the middle ages secular education came into prominence. It assumed two directions: the one was the offspring of chivalry, and may be termed knightly education; the other arose from the business necessities of the cities, and may be termed 'burgher or town education. These secular tendencies were in part a reaction against the one-sided religious character of the ecclesiastical schools, and in part the natural product of peculiar social conditions. What these conditions were will now be examined.

CLASSES OF SOCIETY.-Society during the middle ages may be divided into three classes: ecclesiastics, embracing the clergy and monks; warriors, including the nobles and knights; and producers, comprehending mechanics, tradesmen, and peasants. During a great part of the middle ages the ecclesiastics exerted a strict domination

over the other two classes, holding in their hands, as they did, the keys of knowledge and salvation. The pope assumed absolute temporal as well as absolute spiritual dominion. Opposition to the Church was punished with excommunication; sometimes with the interdict which forbade the exercise of every religious function within a given territory; and, in extreme cases, with the crusade, which exposed whole provinces to utter destruction.

EFFECT OF CRUSADES.-With the crusades, during which great multitudes rushed with fanatical zeal to the Holy Land to rescue the sepulcher of our Lord from Mohammedan hands, there began a noteworthy change in the social relations of Europe. The crusades, though at an almost incredible cost of life, contributed largely to the progress of civilization. They enlarged the contracted sphere of human knowledge. Foreign lands, and new customs, sciences, and arts were introduced into the circle of popular thought. The knightly class was brought into a new importance, was largely increased in numbers, and admirably ennobled in its aims. The crusades led to the emancipation of many serfs, and elevated them to the rank of free peasants. They quickened commerce, trade, and manufacture; increased and strengthened the burgher class; and extended the power and influence of the cities. The knightly and burgher classes attained to a feeling of self-consciousness and independence. They emancipated themselves, to some extent at least, from ecclesiastical tutelage, and this naturally led to a change in education.

E. Knightly Education

ITS CONTRAST.-Knightly education stood in the sharpest contrast with that of the Church. It attached