to heighten the efficiency of sense-perception through industrial occupation, but with instruction rather than development as the end in view. Froebel, differing from both in purpose, advocated hand-work for its cultural value, or for the increase of mental power which it was to produce. It was with this end in view that he had proposed to establish a manual-training school at Helba, Germany. This idea of correlating hand-work with head-work as practised in the kindergarten was the definite beginning of the numerous schemes of manual training that have become integral in the educational systems of Europe, America, and elsewhere in the world.

Kindergartens.-Through Baroness Bertha von Bülow kindergarten ideals and methods have largely modified the "infant schools" of France and England, which, up to the middle of the nineteenth century, were only day-nurseries for the children of parents hard pressed by economic conditions. Through Doctor William T. Harris, until lately United States Commissioner of Education, who gave the kindergarten a place in the St. Louis schools, and through Miss Susan Blow, who seconded his efforts, and established a training-school for kindergartners in St. Louis, kindergartens have become a part of the educational scheme in the United States. This result was greatly hastened and enlarged by Miss Elizabeth Peabody, of Boston, Mass., who opened the first kindergarten for Englishspeaking children in 1860.

General Infiltration.-The whole scheme of modern education has become infiltrated with Froebelianism. This is particularly true of America. Among the men to whom special credit is due for these results is Colonel

Francis W. Parker (1837-1902), principal of the Cook County Normal School, Illinois, who introduced the Pestalozzian method of teaching geography and the Herbartian idea of concentrating the curriculum about a central study, in this case geography, and who insisted in season and out of season on Froebelian motorexpression and social participation as the best means in the development of thinking power and character. Undoubtedly Doctor John Dewey's "new psychology has greatly added to the power of the general psychological movement in pedagogy.

Estimate. The psychological movement beginning in Rousseau's extreme naturalism was generally fortunate in its interpreters, for through them the pendulum was swung back from emotional to institutional individualism, and although the stress which these interpreters have put upon method has often hardened into formalism and soft pedagogy, there is now no real conflict between the claims of the social whole and the individual on the one side, or between both of these and the higher claims of God on the other side.

REFERENCES

i. Myers' "General History."

2. Lord's "Beacon Lights of History."

3. Monroe's "Cyclopedia of Education."

4. Quick's "Educational Reformers."

5. Graves' "Great Educators of Three Centuries." 6. Barnard's "German Teachers."

7. Krusi's "Pestalozzi."

8. Pestalozzi's "Leonard and Gertrude."

9. Barnard's "Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism."

10. Parker's "History of Modern Elementary Education." 11. Williams' "History of Modern Education."

12. Kriege's "Friedrich Froebel."

13. Froebel's "Education of Man."

14. De Garmo's "Herbart and the Herbartians." 15. Lange's "Apperception."

QUESTIONS

1. What two contending ideas came into sharp collision through Rousseau, and what did Pestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel contribute to the new movement?

2. What were the educative influences which help to account for Pestalozzi's philanthropinism?

3. Account fully for his presence at Neuhof, Stanz, Burgdorf, and Yverdun, and examine his achievements in these situations very carefully.

4. State fully the great principles of Pestalozzianism, and bring each one to the test of psychology and sociology.

5. Account for Fellenberg and examine his Pestalozzian experiment at Hofwyl. What does the world owe Fellenberg? 6. Which movements inspired by Rousseau and inaugurated by Pestalozzi have acquired great momentum? Where? Through whom? With what results?

7. What were the educative opportunities of Herbart before he became a tutor himself? How did his career as a tutor contribute to his future? How did Pestalozzi contribute to the same result?

8. Account for his presence at Königsberg, and explain his work there.

9. Explain the twofold ascent which Herbart proposed, and judge the fitness of this scheme as means to end.

10. Account for the laborious investigations carried on so many years. At what important conclusions regarding the construction of a curriculum did he thus arrive? Why was Doctor Eckhoff right in calling Herbart's "apperceptive" correlation "educative instruction"?

11. Explain the formal steps to which later Herbartians have tried to reduce all complete instruction.

12. Explain the contributions of the Herbartians Ziller and Rein to the cause of pedagogy. To what extent has their at

tempt to reconcile the requirements of apperception with biological recapitulation succeeded in practice?

13. Place Froebel with the other great contributors to the psychological movement.

14. For which of his views do his home, early school-days, life in the forest, and his experience as a soldier, account? Through whom did he discover himself and what does he owe to Pestalozzi? What holy mission had he proposed to himself and what higher knowledge did he seek?

15. Describe the activities of Froebel and his associates at Keilhau, and his subsequent trials. Why did he return to Keilhau in 1837, and what does the world owe to him as a consequence?

16. Account psychologically and historically for the attitude of Prussia toward Froebel's kindergarten.

17. What did Froebel believe to be the ends in view in education, and how were these ends to be attained? Examine his ideas on "motor-expression" and "social participation" in the light of present knowledge.

18. What were the "gifts" and "occupations" which Froebel used in his kindergarten, and to what extent have they stood the test?

19. Describe the place "play" has come to have through Froebel's influence.

20. What, according to Froebel, is the function of the hand in education? Compare these views with those of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and later thinkers.

21. Trace the spread of Froebelianism into the twentieth century, and give proper credit to its celebrated interpreters.

22. To what extent has Froebelianism justified itself? Consult the last chapter for help in your decision.

CHAPTER XVII

PRESENT NATIONAL SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION

THE SOCIALIZING MOVEMENTS

The wars through which the English Stuarts and the French Bourbons finally lost their thrones, and through which other powers contended for political supremacy, as in the rise of the Hohenzollerns, reduced large portions of the social whole to helpless conditions of poverty, hopelessness, and vice.

Philanthropy. Although in this course of events the church suffered much herself and lost much of her teaching and alleviating power, she still continued to be the hope of the hopeless. The principle of the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man continued to have power enough to produce individuals and associations that were ready to make themselves the responsible stewards of the less fortunate classes. This spirit of philanthropy sometimes manifested itself in men who were not wholly in sympathy with orthodox Christianity, as in the case of Rousseau, but is seen to the best advantage in such devoted Christians as Pestalozzi. The general outcome in the last part of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century was rescue movements of large proportions-noble efforts to make the helpless classes beneficiaries of education and of all the good things that come through education. Thus arose charity