8. State the connection of ideas which Bacon set forth in each of his famous books. What was Bacon's influence on his own times and future ages?

9. Gather up the personal experiences and course of English events that helped to make Milton, and account for his famous "Tractate."

10. What significant words did Milton use in defining education? Why? Compare his ideas with those of Bacon on the purpose, curriculum, and methods of colleges. Compare his influence with that of Bacon.

11. What right had Ratich to expect that Prince Maurice would respond to his appeals? What ambitious propositions did he then carry to Frankfort? Why did Prince Ludwig finally take him up? Explain his preparations for work, his inductive method, the principles upon which he founded his labors, and his failure.

12. How may we account for the pansophism and senserealism of Comenius? Account for his presence at Lissa, and explain the books which he wrote there. What defeated his pansophic scheme in London and Stockholm? What was the relation of his "Methodus Novissima" and his "Orbis Pictus" to his "Janua"? State his views pretty fully, and estimate his greatness.

13. Gather up the various educative experiences which helped to give Locke's realism such a practical turn. Account for his famous books. How far does modern psychology confirm his "tabula rasa" doctrine? State Locke's brief educational creed, and set forth as fully as possible his views on physical culture, character, course of studies, and languages. Explain his doctrine of "formal discipline," and consult present-day psychology as to the correctness of his views. Which of Locke's contentions hold, and to what extent ?

14. What were the conspicuous fruits of realism in Germany, England, and America?

PART V

MODERN TIMES

CHAPTER XV

NATURALISM

The many-sided mental emancipation which the Renaissance, and the Reformation as a child of the Renaissance, had promised was doomed to temporary defeat in the seventeenth century. This result came about through the repression into which Puritanism in England and America, Jansenism in France, and Pietism in Germany, had hardened. Thus two tyrants now reigned instead of one, namely, repression and formalism. The former forbade all spontaneity, the latter forbade originality. In the meantime, even the revolutions of 1649 and 1688 could not prevent the development of the covert and open absolutism of the Georges (1714-1830), and France continued to writhe in pain under the absolutism of the Bourbons, Louis XIV (1643-1715) and Louis XV (1715-1774), while Germany was slowly but surely being reduced to the absolutism of the Hohenzollern militarism (1640–1870).

The realism of the seventeenth century, as we have seen, was an aristocratic protest of reason which succeeded in spots but failed to make any deep impression upon the general practice of education.

The great revolt against all forms of repression began to find a voice in such men as Hobbes, Locke, Des

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cartes, Voltaire, Kant, and others, but it was not until 1750 that through the brilliant but erratic Rousseau and others this revolution became a wide-spread democratic movement known as "naturalism." This eighteenth-century naturalism was, on the one hand, an aristocratic intellectualism-an appeal to pure reason instead of revelation-as in Voltaire and the French cyclopædists, and, on the other hand, a popular emotionalism, as in Rousseau. When emotionalism tried to justify itself, it appealed to reason, and thus allied itself with the intellectual revolt. In education naturalism thus became a psychological movement of vast power, into which all previous reforms gradually merged, thus producing modern pedagogy and secular schools.

ROUSSEAU

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was not only the eloquent exponent but also the extreme personification of eighteenth-century "naturalism."

In the Making.-Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland. He inherited the romantic and mercurial temperament of his Parisian father, a watchmaker, and the morbid, sentimental disposition of his mother, a Protestant clergyman's daughter. The mother died at Jean Jacques's birth, and he was brought up by an indulgent aunt. When the boy was only six the father began to sit up with him night after night to read sentimental novels, a stock of which the mother had left, thus adding fire to the inherited emotionality and precocious imagination of the child. In little more than a year, when the novels had all been devoured, he turned to the more sensible library of his grandfather,