Chrysoloras.-Greek scholars had gradually begun to come into Italy. In 1396 Manuel Chrysoloras (13501415), sent to Venice by the Eastern emperor to implore aid against the Turks, was invited to the professorship of Greek which through the influence of Boccaccio had been established at Florence. Young Italians, even in Venice, and now in Florence, literally besieged him in their eagerness to learn Greek. He remained in Italy sixteen years, making Florence the new seat of Greek learning, though he spent some of his time founding schools at Pavia, Venice, Milan, Padua, and Rome. Apart from his great work as a teacher, who produced famous disciples and in turn founded schools, his best contributions to the Renaissance were a series of translations of Greek authors, and a work on Greek grammar which long remained the one available authority. Perhaps the most noteworthy disciple of Chrysoloras was "Vittorino da Feltre."

VITTORINO DA FELTRE

Vittorino (1378-1446) took his degree at Padua, where he had become a fine Latin scholar, and remained to take a postgraduate course in mathematics under private masters. He became a teacher here, but after twenty years of hard work went to Venice to study Greek under a great master.

On his return to Padua he began to teach in his own house. When he was forty-five years old, the Marquis of Mantua, who hoped to add lustre to his court, persuaded Vittorino to become the court teacher. The marquis granted every wish, and gave him a suitable building called the "pleasure house." Vittorino and

the princes who were his pupils lived in the school, but, at his request, the sons of his friends and other promising young men were received into the school.

Departing somewhat from the defiant freedom of the earlier humanists, he aimed at a harmonious development of mind, body, and morals. He used as means to ends not only the Latin and Greek classics, but also the Church Fathers, and even the liberal arts, giving the arts large content. Outdoor life and games were encouraged as part of the curriculum.

The scarcity of books compelled him to resort much to dictation as a method of teaching, but, due to his resourceful personality he produced very praiseworthy results, and became the model for other schools.

Highest Points.-In the year 1453, when the capture of Constantinople by the Turks drove the Greek scholars into exile, they were received with open arms into Italy, where such patrons as Nicholas V (13981455) and Leo X (1475-1521) made it possible to carry on the work of the Renaissance with an enthusiasm that amounted to abandonment. Nicholas V encouraged the humanists to collect manuscripts and founded the Vatican library for their permanent storage, while Leo X (1513-1521) by and by encouraged artists like Michelangelo.

Influence. The court schools produced by Italian humanism, through their excellency in course and spirit, became competitors of the universities and at length compelled them to give a large place to the classical literatures of the Greeks and Romans. This was particularly true toward the close of the fifteenth century in Florence, Padua, Pavia, Milan, Ferrara, and Rome.

While some of the Italians, conspicuous among them Vittorino, endeavored to use the ancient learning, in connection with the Christian writers, as means in moral education, and while others, like the learned itinerant philosopher Valla, for a short time a pupil of Vittorino, repudiated the church and her formal confessions openly, the great majority of the "learned" class, including Nicholas V, pagan and sceptical as they had become, remained in outward connection with the church, and even attained to the highest places in the gift of the church. Probably the most extreme case of paganistic humanism among "churchmen" was that of Peter Bembo (1470-1547), the literary ruler at the brilliant court of Leo X, who, himself a pope, was still at heart what his father, Lorenzo the Magnificent, of the house of Medici, had been in his love for art, literature, and paganism, a veritable pagan.

In its best representatives Italian humanism had risen to the highest purpose of complete human development, through a broad course in the study of the classics, supplemented by the Church Fathers, mathematics, science, music, and physical culture; and, by adaptation of work to the pupil's interest and ability, discipline went so far as to banish the rod. Toward the close of the fifteenth century, however, Italian humanism degenerated into dead formalism, later called "Ciceronianism," consisting chiefly in the study of formal grammar and style instead of content and moral purpose. In short, Italian humanism defeated its own highest possibilities, which were, however, later realized more fully north of the Alps.

NORTH OF THE ALPS

The Renaissance did not expend all its force in Italy, but spread into France, Germany, England, and elsewhere, and was greatly modified.

Causes.-Wandering scholars first carried the Renaissance north of the Alps, thus paving the way for a larger coming when Gutenberg's invention of printing with movable type (1456) spread through Europe, making the multiplication of all texts rapid and continuous. Toward the close of the fifteenth century, as the movement gained momentum, humanistic scholars were invited north in great numbers, and admirers of the new learning from the north became students at Florence and other Italian centres of humanism.

FRANCE

It was only natural that France, so long the centre of intellectual activity, should be interested. As early as 1458 a Greek professorship was established in the University of Paris. The Renaissance movement was greatly aided by the expedition which the French kings, Charles VIII and Louis XII, in the interest of hereditary claims, made into Italy in 1494 and 1498, respectively. Although these expeditions failed in their original purpose, they brought French thinkers into contact with the fascinating movement at such sources as Florence, Naples, Milan, and Rome.

Owing to conservatism, the universities of France refused to follow the lead of Paris and opposed the new learning for some time, but the cause found an influential patron in the young king, Francis I (1515

1547). Through his support many prominent humanistic scholars appeared as champions of the classics. Among them were the celebrated authors and teachers Budæus and Corderius. The new education was gradually swept into all the better schools of France.

College of Guyenne.-One of the first important humanistic institutions was the college of Guyenne at Bordeaux, where Corderius and learned men like him were members of the faculty.

Latin and religion were the chief studies in a tenyear secondary course. Greek, mathematics, and rhetoric were offered in the upper classes. A two-year course in philosophy, corresponding somewhat to the arts course in the universities, was added, and was devoted chiefly to Aristotle's works on logic and natural science.

The school became very popular through the excellency of its methods of instruction. Grammar, for example, was approached through the mother tongue, "forms" were taught by the "development" method, disputations were used as stimuli, and discipline was mild. We may consider this school a fair sample of many.

GERMANY

Wandering teachers of the classics, visiting higher institutions of learning in the German states, began to leave their impress wherever they went, but the earliest institutional effort to promote the Renaissance movement in Germany, the Netherlands, and perhaps France, was made by the "Brethren of the Common Life."

The Brethren of the Common Life.-In the year 1376, twenty years before Chrysoloras came to Flor