were the first of the psychological measurements of school children which have now been found so useful that some three million tests were made last year in our public schools. The experiments of forty years ago also have a certain interest because American, English, Irish and German students were tested in their native schools, and we thus have a beginning of racial comparisons of which there is urgent need at the present time in view of their practical application to immigration and other social problems of national importance. We have as yet scant scientific knowledge of the differences between the sexes or among races, family stocks, social classes or occupational groups, and of the directions in which by native endowment or by habits, traditions and institutions, one is different from or superior to another.

In these experiments on association it was found from 363 students in a London school that the time of the total process decreased from 11.76 seconds in the third form, where the children were of the average age of 12.7 years, to 4.13 seconds in the fourth form, where the average age was 17.8 years. There was a positive but small correlation between the tests and class rank, and it was remarked: "It is possible that such experiments measure the alertness of the student's mind more accurately than does the class-rank.” This is indeed the fundamentally important aspect of the intelligence tests now used for entrance to college and in many other directions. The psychologist wants to tell what a man can do rather than what he has learned, what use he will make of opportunity rather than what advantages and privileges he has had. The intelligence tests used by psychologists with 1,800,000 conscripts during the war proved most useful in selecting the officer material at the upper end of the curve of distribution, in eliminating those unfit even for the ranks at the lower end. We may look to a great extension of these tests in industry, as soon as they are adjusted more exactly to the conditions, and employers learn their economic value.

In experiments on association we are concerned with the character as well as with the time of the process. The association may be primarily of objects given together in the physical world or it may be due to rehandling by inner experience. Thus it was found that persons engaged in teaching and writing had a larger proportion of logical and verbal associations than others. The Irish students had a larger proportion of these than the English students; the students in a German Gymnasium, where the languages were their main occupation, a still larger proportion of verbal associations. Anecdotes concerning association and the making of categories and classifications have been an occupation of psychologists from Aristotle to the present time. In the paper referred to,

statistical methods were used to classify thousands of recorded associations, but it was noted that it was extremely difficult to observe by introspection the process of association, whether in the usual course of mental life or in such experiments. Determinations of free associations are used in psychiatry and in the detection of crime. But in the various types of intelligence tests, it is not the character of the associations, but the time measurements and the correctness of the answers that have proved useful.

Associations and trains of ideas are supposed to be given in terms of the senses. The studies by Fechner and Galton of mental imagery by the questionnaire method were its first use in classifying individuals. Great differences were reported in the clearness and brightness of the images; people have been divided into visuals, audiles, motiles and tactiles. Imagery was one of the original series of tests made on the students of Columbia University in the early nineties, and doctorate dissertations by Dr. Lay and Dr. Betts contain extensive experimental investigations. It appears that people are not competent to describe the train of their ideas and that indirect methods show the comparative unimportance of imagery, which may be only a surface sensory coloring. From tests on Pillsbury, who played twenty games of chess without seeing the boards, it was found that he did not depend on mental images, but on the histories of the games. The situation is different with so-called motor images, for these are really incipient movements and can be measured in the laboratory. All stimuli tend to discharge movements and it seems that one of the principal differences between ideas or images and perceptions is the larger motor element in the latter which gives them what Hume called their "force and liveliness."

There are certainly dreams and hallucinations, and in ordinary perception more of what we seem to perceive is supplied by the central nervous system as molded by past experience than by the incoming currents. Memory images of various kinds and entoptic phenomena form nearly a continuum between imagination and perception. An after-image impressed on the retina or brain twenty years ago is still visible; this may seem incredible, but Newton acquired an after-image that lasted three years. The duration and character of the after-image as well as its color and oscillations were correlated by Dr. Franz with the quality, duration, intensity and area of the stimulus. There are significant individual differences which may denote ability in observation and power of attention.

Ordinary observation, recollection and general information are more defective than is commonly supposed, and this is particularly the case when the per

son at the time of an event does not know that he will be called upon to describe what has happened. An attorney can discredit a witness by asking questions to which a correct answer should not be expected. As a result of a study published in 1896, it was found that when students in a psychological class were asked-being allowed thirty seconds for reply-what the weather was a week ago the answers were: clear 16, rain 12, snow 7, stormy 9, cloudy 6 and partly stormy and partly clear 6, about the probable distribution of weather at the beginning of March. When asked which way the seeds in an apple point, 24 said upward, 18 towards center, 13 downward and 3 outward. Answers as to the date of Victor Hugo's death ranged from 1790 to one maintaining that he was still living. Estimates of a given period of 35 seconds ranged from 5 to 150 seconds. When the students were asked what was said during the first two minutes of the lecture in the same course given one week before, the accounts were such that the lecturer might prefer not to have them recorded. From the testimony of the students, it would appear that two minutes sufficed to cover a large range of psychological and other subjects, and to make many statements of an extraordinary character. Similar experiments were made on classes in the Horace Mann School, and these were among the first psychological experiments made on school children.

Practice, learning, memory and fatigue can to great advantage be made the subjects of objective and quantitative psychological experiments. Ebbinghaus's monograph on the learning and recall of non-sense syllables (1885) and the study of the practise curve in learning the telegraphic language by Bryan and Harter (1897) are the classical foundations in these fields. The first practise curve was, however, made in 1886-7, by running daily three miles and plotting the decreasing times and rate of the heart. These also antedated Mosso's experiments on muscular fatigue, on which and its relation to mental conditions many experiments have been made.2

2 The substitution of a spring for a lifted weight in experiments on fatigue, a dynamometer for the thumb and forefinger to replace the whole hand, instruments for adding successive pressures of the fingers and hand so that fatigue and practise curves can be obtained without a kymograph, and an algometer to measure the pressure causing pain, as also the substitution of the Kelvin syphon, pen, pencil and typewriter ribbon for a smoked surface on the kymograph, and a continuous kymograph in which the paper was smoked and the record was fixed automatically as the records were made, appear to be useful technical devices. In this connection may be mentioned also a smoked plate glass disk as a chronograph, enabling us to project fatigue curves, reaction times, involuntary movements in response to a stimulus, the

How we learn, the best way to learn, the right age at which to learn different things, the transfer of learning from one field to another, are subjects of fundamental importance in psychology and in education. Making practise curves is itself an excellent educational method. The child learns more by working as hard as he can for a short time than by dawdling for a couple of hours. When he plots the curve he is anxious to improve each day's record and the objectively measured competition is with himself as well as with others. Thus it was found that if a boy. of ten writes on the typewriter by proper methods twenty minutes a day for sixty days and plots the curves of the amount accomplished and of the errors, he learns to write faster than any one can write by hand. In the meanwhile he learns to spell and to correct his mistakes; he learns arithmetic and geometry as realities; he learns the value of measurement and objective standards. Practise and learning experiments, including records on each of 365 consecutive days, have been made by me for forty years and are now being made. Whatever the scientific value may be, it adds to the interest to keep practise curves in chess, cards, billiards, tennis and the like.

Daily, weekly and seasonal curves; the optimum periods for definite tasks and for a day's work; industrial fatigue; temperature, ventilation and humidity; the most desirable sexual relations, food, amount and distribution of sleep; rest, play and physical exercise; the use and misuse of emotional excitement and of drugs as sedatives and stimuli: these have been the subject of many investigations in the Columbia laboratory. There are none more important in their practical application to the affairs of daily life. The human psycho-physical organism has through long ages by natural selection or otherwise adjusted itself to the world in which it lives. It was not adapted to the innumerable new demands of modern civilization. It has proved itself plastic to an extraordinary degree, but it is the business of psychology to obtain scientific knowledge of the whole situation and then to apply it for the benefit of all.

The Taylor system initiated a new profession of psychological and industrial engineering. It has been retarded because trade unions, not without reason, feared speeding-up methods. A long correspondence with Mr. Gompers shortly before his death indicates that the unions may ultimately in their own interest take up questions of the psychological selection of men and the improvement of the methods of their psychogalvanic reflex, etc., on the screen before a class or a large audience. These instruments are mentioned here to emphasize the fact that psychology is an experimental science and that a workshop is a desirable part of every laboratory.

work. The British Institute of Psychology has been successful in securing the cooperation of the workers and has in some directions increased production by 40 per cent. with decreased fatigue. In every field of activity from the use of pick and shovel, of typewriter and ledger, through the factory and office, to the organization of the work of the executive or the congress of the nation, investigations might be made. which if put into effect would add from 10 to 100 per cent. to effective productivity and lessen to an equal extent effort and fatigue.

It is absurd that researches whose economic value can only be told in billions of dollars and whose contribution to human welfare is even more immeasurable should await the pleasure of a few academic psychologists who take them up in the intervals between coaching the members of a junior social and athletic club and helping with the family housework, and then only until they get into difficulties with the president or themselves become presidents. In our competitive and capitalistic system services to an individual or corporation are paid for, often to excess, whereas services to society are paid for only in the fiat currency of reputation, titles, degrees and the like. A surgeon may receive a thousand or ten thousand dollars for saving or killing his patient. If after years of research he should discover a cure or prevention of appendicitis or cancer, he not only would not be paid for his work, but would lose all future fees. The psychologists of the country, as is becoming for those directly engaged in the study of human behavior, have taken the lead in forming a Psychological Corporation whose objects are to conserve for research part of the profits from the applications of our science and to conduct new research on an economic basis. Scientific men should take the place that is theirs as masters of the modern world.

J. MCKEEN CATTELL (To be concluded)

OCEANOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SCRIPPS INSTITUTION FOR BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF

CALIFORNIA1

1. Prior to the retirement of the former director, Dr. Wm. E. Ritter, it was decided to convert the Scripps Institution from one for biological research into an institution of oceanography. With one exception all of the researches at present prosecuted at the institution have to do either directly or indirectly with the ocean.

1 Abstract of a paper presented before the section of oceanography of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C., April, 1925.

2. The oceanographic work of the institution is divided into four categories, since some kind of subdivision is necessary. The subdivisions are geological, physical, chemical and biological oceanography. Each of the investigations included under the categories enumerated is in charge of one or more men of recognized research ability.

3. Investigations such as those on the ocean are logically divisible into three steps. The first consists in making observations and collecting material for laboratory study; the second, in the laboratory study of the data and collections and the preparation of reports for publication, and the third, in publication. At the Scripps Institution moderate provisions have been made for the first and second steps and consideration is now being given to the problem of publication.

4. The Scripps Institution has in operation, partly through its own efforts and partly through arrangements for cooperation, an extensive plan for obtaining oceanographic and meteorologic data and plankton, water and bottom samples from the Northeast Pacific. During a part of each year the institution has operated along and off the coast of southern California a small boat either owned or charted by it. It maintains a number of shore observing stations along the west coast of the United States from the latitude of San Diego to the mouth of the Columbia River. Several of these stations are maintained through cooperation with the United States Bureau of Lighthouses; and one at Pacific Grove, through cooperation with the Hopkins Marine Laboratory.

The vessels of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey operating off the west coast of the United States, between the United States and Alaska, and in Alaskan waters obtain for the institution both hydrographic and meteorologic records and extensive series of water, plankton and bottom samples. In many places the vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey have made vertical sections of the water from the surface to the bottom and now sufficient data have been accumulated for preliminary calculations of oceanic circulation off the west coast of the United States according to methods devised by V. Bjerknes.

By an arrangement with the United States Navy, meteorologic and hydrographic records and water and plankton samples are being obtained for the institution by the destroyer fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Frank H. Schofield between San Diego and the Guadalupe Islands; between San Diego and San Francisco; between San Francisco and the Hawaiian Islands, where the destroyer fleet will divide; between the Hawaiian Islands and San Diego by that part of the destroyer fleet which will return directly to San Diego, and between the Hawaiian Islands and Australia and return by that part of the fleet which will

make that voyage. Before the vessels started on the voyage all the thermometers used by them were calibrated or provisions were made for subsequent calibration by the Scripps Institution. The arrangements above indicated will give virtually a complete survey of the surface oceanic conditions along all the routes over which the battle fleet will operate during 1925.

The Southern California Edison Company, the Los Angeles Bureau of Light and Power and the Southern Sierras Power Company have combined to aid the Scripps Institution in its studies of ocean temperatures, and the organizations enumerated have contributed a fund for the purchase of two thermographs, one of which will be installed on the pier of the Scripps Institution and the other at Balboa. An arrangement has also been made with the sanitation engineers of Los Angeles for a detailed study of the effect of sewage on sea water in the vicinity of San Pedro, California.

Upon the initiative of the commandant of the Naval Air Station at San Diego an arrangement has been made for the study of the fog problems along the coast of southern California by the officers of the Naval Air Station, the United States Weather Bureau and the Scripps Institution.

The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey has established on the pier of the institution one of its automatic tide gauges and Dr. G. F. McEwen has been appointed tide observer of that bureau.

An arrangement has been made with the committee on seismology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington for the installation of three seismographs, one for each component, on piers erected in the basement of the Museum-Library building of the Scripps Institution. The seismographs will be contributed by the committee on seismology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, while the piers have been erected by the Scripps Institution. The instruments will be cared for by members of the staff of the institution but the records will be turned over to the seismologists of the committee on seismology.

The geologic aspect of the work in oceanography comprises cooperation in the study of seismology in southern California and the investigation of marine bottom deposits. During the past year some progress has been made in the study of marine sediments. Large collections of bottom deposits from off the west coast of the United States have been assembled at the institution. It is hoped that these collections will grow and that it will soon be possible to present a new map of the marine bottom deposits of the Northeast Pacific.

The investigations in dynamical oceanography are in charge of Dr. G. F. McEwen. During the past year the salinity has been determined for some thousands

of water samples received from a number of different sources. The data on temperature, salinity, and other physical features of sea water are systematically filed. The purpose of acquiring the data of the kind above indicated is to interpret the general physical conditions of the sea and particularly to solve problems of oceanic circulation. Dr. McEwen has now about ready for press a paper entitled "A mathematical theory of the temperature distribution in water due to solar radiation, evaporation and convection." Very shortly it is intended to undertake preliminary computations of the oceanic circulation in the eastern North Pacific; and Dr. McEwen has in preparation a summary of the physical oecanography for the Northeast Pacific from the years 1916 to 1925, inclusive, which should be ready for press during the latter part of 1926. Investigation of the interrelation between oceanic conditions and the rainfall in the Western United States is being continued.

The chemical investigations of the Institution are in charge of Dr. E. G. Moberg. These investigations comprise analysis of plankton per unit volume of water, with particular reference to its relative food value, and the variation in amount and the chemical features of the plankton according to season, depth and a number of other factors; the determination of the hydrogen ion concentration of sea water and the relation between the variation of the hydrogen ion concentration and a number of factors; the determination of nitrogen compounds in sea water; the determination of the amount of phosphate in sea water; and the relation of the run-off from the land to the chemical constituents of sea water. Dr. Moberg has just completed a summary of the chemical work he has done during the past four years and his paper will soon be submitted for publication. It is intended within a short time to undertake detailed chemical analysis of the ash of plankton in order to find out what contribution decaying plankton may make to marine bottom deposits, and to undertake certain work on chemical composition of the organic material associated with bottom deposits.

The biological investigations conducted by the staff of the Institution have been mostly confined to the quantitative study of plankton organisms per unit volume of water and the variation in the composition of the amount of plankton according to a number of factors, such as season, temperature of the water, depth, distance from the shore, hydrogen ion concentration and other factors. Professor W. E. Allen has for a number of years investigated the diatoms and dinoflagellates from the standpoint indicated and has already published many papers, and he has a number of papers either ready or almost ready for press. The number of plankton samples received by the in

The

stitution is enormous and one of the most pressing needs of the institution is to obtain additional assistance in the study of the collections already on hand and being received from a number of sources. results already obtained indicate that light is being thrown on a number of important marine problems by systematic and continued investigations along the lines now being pursued. Professor C. O. Esterly is making investigations of the copepod fauna along and off the coast of southern California in a way similar to the investigations conducted by Professor Allen on the diatoms and dinoflagellates, and has published a number of papers. Recently an arrangement has been made with Dr. J. A. Cushman for a systematic study of the foraminifera along and off the coast of southern California.

The institution helps numbers of marine biologists by offering them facilities for studies at the institution and by supplying material to investigators. In an abstract such as this, it is not practicable to enumerate persons of the two categories indicated who have profited by such facilities as the institution can afford. It is desired that these facilities be utilized up to the institution's capacity.

During the coming summer it is proposed to hold at the Scripps Institution two conferences. The first of these will deal with the physical oceanography and meteorology of the Northeast Pacific and the interrelations of oceanic phenomena with the climate of the western United States. It is hoped to have represented at this conference all those institutions and organizations interested in such matters. It is intended that the second conference shall deal with certain problems of bacteriology, biochemistry and physical chemistry of the sea, and their relation to certain geological processes.

matical, physical and biological sciences. While the United States is in the forefront of industrial research, it is accomplishing much less in pure science than its population and material resources would lead one to expect.

The academy has created a special board of trustees of the National Research Endowment which includes Dr. Albert A. Michelson, president of the National Academy of Sciences; Gano Dunn, chairman of the National Research Council; Dr. Vernon Kellogg, permanent secretary of the National Research Council; Elihu Root, Herbert Hoover, Andrew W. Mellon, Charles E. Hughes, John W. Davis, Julius Rosenwald, Colonel Edward M. House, Cameron Forbes, Felix Warburg, Henry S. Pritchett; Dr. Robert A. Millikan, foreign secretary of the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. John C. Merriam, president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; Owen D. Young and Henry M. Robinson; Dr. Simon Flexner, director of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research; Dr. John J. Carty, vice-president of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company; Dr. William H. Welch, director of the School of Hygiene and Public Health of Johns Hopkins University; Dr. James H. Breasted, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago; Professor L. R. Jones, of the University of Wisconsin; Professor A. B. Lamb, director of the chemical laboratory of Harvard University; Professor Oswald Veblen, of Princeton University; Dr. Thomas H. Morgan, of Columbia University, and Dr. George E. Hale, of the Mount Wilson Observatory. Mr. Hoover has been requested to act as chairman of the board and has accepted.

In discussing the vital need for greater financial support of pure science research, Mr. Hoover said in a recent address:

While we have in recent years developed our industrial research upon a scale hitherto unparalleled in history, we have by no means kept pace in the development of research in pure science. The sudden growth of industrial research laboratories has in itself endangered pure science research by drafting the personnel of pure science into their ranks. Thus applied science itself will dry up unless we maintain the sources of pure science. We must add to knowledge, both for the intellectual and spiritual satisfaction that comes from widening the range of human understanding, and for the direct practical utilization of these fundamental discoveries. A special study in an industrial laboratory, resulting in the improvement of some machine or process, is of great value to the world. But the discovery of a law of nature, applicable in thousands of instances and forming a permanent and ever available addition to knowledge, is a far greater advance.

Elihu Root is no less emphatic than Herbert Hoover in his appreciation of fundamental scientific research. He says: