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In the negative propositions the subject and predicate are declared incongruous or unlike. When we compare two things and find a marked dissimilarity, we sometimes say there is no comparison, and we call the result a contrast. The greater the difference along the same line of thought, the sharper the contrast. But how are we to know there is any contrast, until we try for comparison. This view of the matter brings out the fact that contrast is the result of comparison, but that result is a negative quantity. In the equation of thought, Subject Predicate, contrast is comparison with a minus sign before it.

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Logically, every sentence consists of two elements, and only two- the logical subject and the logical predicate. However long the sentence, every word in it belongs to one or the other of these essential elements. Therefore all language, considered as a mode of expression, is subject to this law of consecutive thought; viz., comparison.

But there are many forms of expression by language, wherein the words used are not to be taken in their plain or literal sense. The use of words in any other than their strictly literal sense is called a figure of speech. It is also called a trope that is, a turning away from the usual signification to some other meaning suggested by the connection in which it is used. There are many of these figures of speech, but we shall consider only the principal ones.

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First, SIMILE. This, as its name implies, is the expression of similarity between two objects of thought, with a view of explaining or embellishing the one by its association with the other. This figure is familiar to all and is used even by the untutored savage. Children delight in it as soon as they are capable of taking distinct notice of objects, and yet, the most accomplished composer never reaches such heights of eloquence or flights of fancy that he cannot use the simile to advantage.

To illustrate: I may say of a certain person, " His memory is both quick and retentive." That is literal. But how

much clearer, more forcible, and more agreeable is the expression if I say, "His memory is like wax to receive impressions, and like marble to retain them.”

Now since Simile consists wholly in the making of a formal comparison, it is evident that we can use it in connection with any given idea in such a way as to exalt or debase that idea. We may make our subject appear splendid, or graceful, or clumsy, or refined, or coarse, or humble, or proud, or dignified, or grand, according as we compare that subject with things that possess one or another of these qualities. Shakespeare says of a certain strain of music:

It came o'er my ear like the sweet sound
That breathes upon a bank of violets,

Stealing and giving odor.

The image of soft music is thus by comparison, associated with something which gives it additional embellishment and charm.

You have noticed that in all these examples we have used the word "like," to effect a formal comparison. "Like," or its equivalent, is necessary, or it would not be a simile.153 The word "as," or "so," or "so as," is sometimes substituted for "like," but the idea is the same.

Now take a case of degrading instead of ennobling. Butler burlesques Hudibras thus:

'Tis known that he could speak Greek

As naturally as pigs squeak;

And Latin was no more difficile

Than for a blackbird 'tis to whistle.

He also burlesques the morning, thus:-
The Sun had long since in the lap
Of Thetis taken out his nap;

And, like a lobster boiled, the morn

From black to red began to turn.

There are many rules for the use of the Simile in order to govern it in the wide range of thought to which it is adapted. We shall not dwell on these details or variations, but it is desirable that we get a clear conception of the general principle involved, because so many other figures of speech are modifications or outgrowths of this one.

Thus METAPHOR is a simile without the formal use of the word "like" or its equivalent. Instead of saying one thing is like another we say one is the other.

Thus, "He upholds the state like a pillar which upholds an edifice," is a simile. " He is a pillar of state," is a metaphor. Another, "As in passing through a prism, beams of white light are decomposed into the colors of the rainbow; so, in traversing the soul of the poet, the colorless rays of truth are transformed into bright-tinted Poetry." That is simile. The same ideas expressed in metaphor would be — “The white light of truth, in traversing the many-sided transparent soul of the poet, is refracted into iris-hued poetry."—(Herbert Spencer.)

Of course, we must be careful in using metaphor not to draw our comparisons from different sources in the same sentence. That would be mixing metaphors. Religious people are apt to use scripture similes and metaphors in that careless way. Thus a man once prayed that "The word which had been preached might be like a nail driven in a sure place, sending its roots downward, its branches upward, spreading itself like a green bay-tree, fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners."

Metaphors should not be multiplied to excess, but sometimes the subject is such that one leading similarity can be carried out into a multitude of details and a whole story or book is constructed on the line of that one thought. Such a work is called an Allegory. Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress is a good example of Allegory. The 80th Psalm is an allegory wherein Israel is represented as a vine that God brought out of Egypt and planted in Palestine. The comparison is extended to numerous details, and yet Israel is not once mentioned; the story of the vine is so aptly told that the reader easily understands it to be Israel. Another extended Allegory is The Faery Queen.

Shorter compositions of this nature are called Fables, except that when they occur in the scriptures, they are called Parables. Many of these are familiar to you all. Thus, in the 9th chapter of Judges, Jotham tells the story of the

trees choosing for themselves a King. This is a parable, but if the same story were told in the famous works of Æsop, it would be termed a Fable. There are so many beautiful specimens which might be quoted, that it is hard to refrain from indulging ourselves in that way; but if our time be devoted too much to specimens, we shall not get the philosophy. One simile that shows even more force than beauty is this: "A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye; the more light you pour into it, the more it contracts."

In the next figure, ANTITHESIS, we shall employ that phase of comparison known as contrast. The effect of contrast in ideas is like putting two unlike things in juxtaposition. Black never appears so black, nor white so white as when they are placed alongside each other. When viewed together, each heightens the effect of the other. The more alike in form, size and all other respects, except some one, the more striking the difference in that one respect. Therefore, contrasted ideas should have a similar verbal construction. For example, "If you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, you will never be poor; if according to the standard of opinion, you will never be rich."

Many of the most effective examples of Antitithesis are short. Thus: "Flattery brings friends; truth brings foes;" "Enemies in war, in peace, friends:" Forewarned, forearmed."

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EPIGRAM is another figure containing contrariety. Thus: "Conspicuous for its absence." Beauty unadorned, adorned the most." "So many things are striking that nothing strikes." "Language is the art of concealing thought." Even this terse form of expressing many thoughts in a nutshell and at the same time adding force by contrast may be extended into a series, forming an abridged, epigrammatic allegory, thus:

War and love are strange compeers.

War sheds blood, and love sheds tears;
War has swords, and love has darts;

War breaks heads, and love breaks hearts.

We shall not have time to define and illustrate all the figures of speech, and must pass by many with a mere mention. METONYMY and SYNECDOCHE are closely related, as are also INTERROGATION and EXCLAMATION. APOSTROPHE is a powerful figure, if the subject apostrophised has sufficient inherent sublimity to support the poetic forms of expression. PERSONIFICATION attributes life to things inanimate; and these two, Apostrophe and Personification, often go together. I shall give you an original example of this when speaking of poetry. HYPERBOLE is a figure that consists merely of extravagant exaggeration. Thus we speak of "waves mountain high," and while no one expects that to be taken as literally true, it is an effective figure and manifestly depends upon comparison.

The last figure we shall notice is IRONY. It consists in ridiculing an object under pretence of praising it. To accomplish this end effectively, the words should be spoken with a sneer. Job says, (12:2), “No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." A modern Job would say "Huh! You must think you're the only pebble on the beach!" Irony is too familiar to need further illustration.

Now every expression of thought in language requires words and sentences, and may or may not use figures; but the manner in which the expression is clothed is termed Style. Some have a labored style, some a florid style, some a forceful style. Some compositions are elegant, some stiff and clumsy. Some expressions are easy and graceful, some stately and dignified, some bold and defiant, some witty or humorous. Some clothe their thoughts in the silken robes of beauty; some in the homespun garments of utility; some in the humility of sackcloth and ashes.95 151

Perhaps the highest style of composition is the sublime. Sublimity is one of the highest emotions,405 and the style of expression necessary to awaken that emotion in the hearer is correspondingly superior. There are many circumstances that conspire to awaken sublimity. Vastness, is one thing that induces a feeling of the sublime. Power is another. Also

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