The sure hereditary transmission of the character of the race is mostly founded in the established purity of the race, tribe, breed or family; a less reliable constancy, therefore is found in the first and second generation of

crosses.

It was and is still of the greatest importance to the breeder to know at what time constancy may be established in animals of new breeds produced by crossing, in order to ascertain when he may commence and continue a system of in-and-in breeding, the animals bred by himself, without apprehending a more general degeneration in the descendants. As to cattle, the general opinion is that, if all the necessary considerations in crossing have received proper attention, constancy will be established in the fourth, fifth, or, at most, sixth generation; but the communications by Scottish breeders, referred to on a previous page, seem to show that constancy is not fully established (consolidated) in the sixth, and not even in the eighth generation.

In order to give in figures a general view of the constancy of the hereditary transmission of qualities, calculations have long ago been made in the following manner:

The prominent qualities of the animal selected to effect improvement are denoted by 100, but the deviating condition of the animal to be improved, by 0. According to the supposition that both parents transmit their peculiarities in equal proportions the result of the first crossing is represented as follows:

I. Generation...

100+0=100=50 (half-blood).

2

2

Then, if the crossing is continued in this way, that the female bastards of each consecutive generations are always paired again with male animals of the same race selected to effect the improvement, the proportions of this progressive improvement are as follows:

The quotients from 50 to 993 represent only the possible progress of improvement, and the example shows that by further progressive generations there remains always a small fraction by which the cross is inferior to the pure animal. From the circumstances above mentioned which have a favorable or unfavorable influeuence upon the success of the crossing, it is apparent that the success of improvement cannot always be calculated according to this scheme, but it may be obstructed and interrupted in various ways, so that perfect constancy may be established only at a still more remote point of time. Thus, the above calculation is not a fixed rule; but only an approximation.

Generation. The definition of generation is as follows: All the young of one mother together form one (the first) generation; if these young again become parents, their offspring represent the second generation, &c., &c.

CATTLE BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT.

BY THOMAS C. JONES, OF DELAWARE, OHIO.

If an accurate estimate could be made of the amount annually lost by the farmers of Ohio on account of breeding inferior animals, and neglect in their management, it is believed that the sum would be so large as to induce instant and general efforts at improvement.

The loss resulting to wool growers from the depredations of dogs, while regarded quite serious by sheep breeders, was not supposed to be of sufficient magnitude to require legislative protection, until by the returns of the assessors the enormous aggregate was presented to the public. The intense indignation of the wool-growers on this subject may be attributed to the fact that, as dogs were regarded as worthless, the immense loss was suffered without cause and without the slightest benefit resulting to any one. But the loss thus sustained is as nothing when compared to the amount thrown away upon badly managed, inferior stock. And the millions of money that are thus annually lost by the farmars of Ohio, are just as causlessly lost as in the case of loss by sheep killing dogs.

The farmer's occupation is subject to vicissitudes resulting in losses which cannot be guarded against; such as injury to growing crops by insects, unfavorable seasons, etc., and the loss of domestic animals by disease or accident; but it is believed that the losses from all these causes, large as the sometimes are, do not in the aggregate compare with those

in the management of all farm stocks than we should expect from their general intelligence and enterprise, are more particularly so in reference to cattle. This neglect, and the consequent inferior quality of this stock, appear the more remarkable when we reflect that it is comparatively so easy to improve it and to maintain its excellence. Animals from well established breeds, nearly perfect in all useful characteristics, can now be had at prices so moderate, that there is no excuse for using inferior "scrubs" for breeding purposes; and to maintain this excellence, nothing is required but the observance of a few well tested rules, and liberal keeping.

SELECTION OF BREEDING ANIMALS.

This paper being designed chiefly for those farmers who breed cattle for the common purposes of producing beef or milk; it may be observed that for those purposes the most obvious, as well as the most economical, method to improve our stock, is to begin with procuring a good bull. The first requisite here, is blood; that is an established uniformity in the family or race to which the animal belongs. It is, of course, important that we have a good animal, but individual excellence will be of little value and we cannot expect that it will be transmitted to the offspring, unless it be es tablished in the family from which he descended.

If a well shaped calf should be bred from ill-shaped and inferior ancestry, we should regard such excellence as entirely accidental, and should not expect its manifestation in the progeny. And it is for this reason that pedigree is important; so important indeed that it may be safely asserted that no people in any country, have ever been successful in producing superior stock who have not carefully preserved their pedigrees.

The bull should, therefore be of pure blood, and the only reliable evidence of this, is the pedigree, in such perfect form as would be required for insertion in the Herd Books. Good breeders record the pedigrees of their cattle in these books, and when they are found there, it is generally to be inferred that the animal is thoroughbred; the breeders who neglect this safe and convenient method of preserving the genealogy of their herds, may be presumed to be either so negligent in their management as not really to know their pedigrees, or to have impure blood. Next to purity of blood, compactness of form, may be regarded as the most valuable point. In size, he should be equal to the full average of the breed, but not too large or overgrown; should be short in the leg, round and deep in the chest, round and broad back, deep flank, hips of moderate length and breadth; the hind legs standing square under the animal, appearing straight when viewed from the rear, but a slight angle appearing at the hock, from a side view, is not objectionable even in the best short horns.

The fore leg should be short and straight, large and powerful above the knee, but small and bony below. The bosom should be broad and full, with a prominent brisket, but the shoulder points should not be protuberant. The neck will be muscular, and with the head and horns will present a masculine appearance-not too coarse and yet not fine and delicate like a heifer. If we have not here some indications of masculine vigor, we may expect the animal, whatever his other merits, to be defective in constitution, and that he will never realize the expectations of the breeder. These characteristics must not, however, be confounded with a heavy, illshaped head, sunken eye and large dew-lap, indicating bad temper, bad feeding qualities and bad blood. The head and neck, though stout, should be well proportioned-the eye full and sprightly, the horn, though somewhat thick, should not be too large, nor ill-shaped. The hide must be soft, elastic, and of medium thickness, with hair long, abundant and soft.

Such an animal, with straight back and abdomen ("straight top and bottom," as breeders say), and a round, plump appearance in all points, cannot fail in making the most wonderful improvement upon a herd of good common cows.

The cow should exhibit the same points except the hips, which we expect to be relatively larger, and the shoulders, neck and head, which should be much lighter and finer. Indeed the head and shoulders of the cow can not well be too fine, as this form indicates good milking qualities, superior flesh and good feeding properties. It is, of course, desirable that the cow as well as the bull should be pure bred, but where this is not practicable, common animals as nearly the shape above indicated as possible should be selected. They should be round and plump in form, not long in the leg, with a full eye and pleasant and feminine expression.

A cow with a bad temper, defective form or of bad feeding qualities, should never be used as a breeder.

As to the relative size of the male and female, it is insisted by most writers that if one be larger than the other, it must be the female. In breeding horses I am disposed to think that this rule should be observed, that if a large horse is bred to a small mare, the progeny is apt to be illshaped and not well proportioned. But from considerable experience and observation, I have become satisfied that breeding large bulls of good proportions to small cows, is not productive of bad results. The offspring, while much larger than the dams, has been as perfect in form as when the parents were of equal size.

I have also bred the large Leicester buck to the comparatively small Southdown ewe, with equally satisfactory results.

In support of this opinion, and also to prove the value of Durham bulls to

cross upon other and smaller breeds, I quote a communication from the British Farmers' Magazine: "A friend of mine had about a dozen North Devon cows, small in size but nice in quality, and from these he commenced about twenty years since, breeding with Shorthorn bulls. He has since invariably used these bulls. With each succeeding cross the stock have rapidly improved in every essential, and the only trace of the Devon which I could perceive when I last saw them, was a peculiar richness in their color. He breeds about thirty annually, and generally sells his three year olds in Autumn at £17 to £22 ($85 to $110) and I have known him to sell in-calf heifers to jobbers in pairs as high as thirty guineas ($150) each. All his stock are superior milkers. Here we have had twenty years experiment and continued improvement." The same writer says: "I have Seen many excellent beasts bred from shorthorn bulls and long horn cows; indeed I have never seen one of these bulls bred to any cow where the product was not superior to the dam."

MANAGEMENT.

It is difficult to keep a breeding bull in pasture; they usually become breechy, so that the practice is getting quite common to keep them in the stable, a practice perhaps as economical as any, and certainly the least troublesome. I have known instances of bulls being placed at twelve months old in a lot enclosed with a strong post and rail fence, in which was a shelter for winter, and never taken out, to continue quite to an old age. This is perhaps the best practice. If the bull is kept in the stable, it is desirable that he should have some exercise daily-being led out twice a day a few rods to water will be beneficial. A bull should have very little service until two years of age, and should not be used after old age has begun to influence his condition. He should be in full vigor and health. All breeding animals should be well kept, because condition is to some extent inherited by the offspring. The produce of animals habitually in low flesh are not apt to be good feeders.

For the same reason, the calf must have a good supply of nutritious food; for the first three or four months it should have twelve quarts of milk a day. It should also have an abundance of grass, or if this can not be had, when the animal is six weeks old, some meal, bran or oil cake should be fed, and continued until it is weaned, which may be at the age of four or five months. The progress of the calf will be much more satisfactory if the supply of milk is diminished gradually for some weeks before it is finally weaned.

The change from the highly concentrated nutritious food furnished in the milk of the dam, to the more bulky and less nutritious grass or hay, must