DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

BY D. J. BROWNE.

REMARKS ON THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

From patient research and strict inquiry, it is now conceded as an established principle, that the most careful breeding of animals will only fix and make prominent certain peculiar features or "points" which are observed in certain families of the same aboriginal species or subspecies; and that the whole world might be challenged to bring evidence that any permanent intermediate variety of quadruped or bird, generated by the crossing of any two wild species which would continue to reproduce offspring like itself, and not finally revert back to one or other original type. In considering the great question of the "immutability of the species," so closely allied to the investigation of the different varieties, as far as the limited researches of physiologists and naturalists have gone, we are led to the conclusion that sub-species and even varieties are much more permanent, independent, and ancient than is at present currently believed. This conviction is founded on the diversities we see even in the most nearly allied races, which, it is most unhesitatingly maintained, are not merely the results of any transmuting influence of time, variation, or increase of food, change of climate, nor by hybridization, but that each distinct variety, however nearly resembling any other variety, or race, was produced at the beginning by a creative power-not by man, nor by his domestication, nor by any inherent tendency in the creatures themselves. Moreover, facts would seem to prove that hybrids, possessed of the power of reproduction, are even then saved from being barren only by their pro. geny reverting more or less rapidly to the type of one parent or the other; so that no intermediate race is founded. Things, sooner or later, either go on as they went before, or they cease to go on at all. This is the case with our domestic animals generally, and is well known to breeders as one of the most inflexible difficulties with which they have to contend, technically called by them "crying back."

Difference in food, change of climate, or other physical conditions to which they might be exposed, it is true, might naturally be expected to produce considerable corresponding modifications in the form, size, color, and coating of animals; as it is well known that cattle generally become very large and fat when reared for many generations on moist

rich soils, where good pasturage abounds, but are distinguished by the shortness of their legs; while on drier situations where the herbage is sparse, their whole bulk is less, and their limbs more muscular and strong. A country of heaths, or of other innutritious plants, will not produce a horse so large nor so strong as one of plentiful herbage, as is manifested between those reared on bleak mountains and fertile plains, high latitudes and more temperate climes, sandy deserts and watered vales. A change of situation in the one case, after a succession of generations, not only diminishes the size of the animal, but affects the character and form of his body, head, and limbs. Thus, if a London dray horse be conveyed to Arabia, and subjected to the same influences to which the native breed of that country is exposed, in the course of some generations he will present the leading characters of the Arabian horse. The head gradually diminishes in size, the limbs become fine and clear, the massive proportions of the whole body disappear, and not only will the external form of the native Arabian be acquired, but also something of his chivalrous traits. On the contrary, if the race thus changed be again conveyed to England, in the course of several generations, it will gradually acquire the properties it formerly possessed. This fact would seem to prove that the Arabian horse cannot exist in perfection in any of the northern or western countries of Europe, and that the humidity of the climate and the influence indirectly arising from that cause are the principal reasons of this change. Similar instances might be given in reference to the changes which have been observed in the sheep, the goat, and the hog. The former, when subjected to the climate of the West Indies, from Thibet, Spain, or Vermont, where their fleeces are fine, delicate, and soft, after a few years are entirely covered with rough, coarse hair, resembing that of the goat.

The breeding of domestic animals with a view to improvement may be said to be founded on nature's established law, that "like begets like;" and this axiom applies not only to the production of the qualities of external form and utility, but to the constitutional vigor and the predisposition to disease. This maxim, however, is only true in part, as there is a constant tendency to change, arising from a variety of causes, such as living in a different climate or on a different kind of food, as stated above. The selection and management of the parents and the treatment of the progeny also have their influence; but these may be regarded as the chief causes in the operation, notwithstanding there are others which are employed to develop and establish the desired quality and form.

In order to improve a race of animals, there are two modes advocated and practised by breeders-one commonly called the "in-and-in system," and the other that of "crossing." It was by the former whence sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the superior cattle of the Collings, of England, many years ago, and had the effect, at least, of correcting the prejudice which had previously existed against breeding from animals of the same race or blood. But the system of breeding in-and-in, it has since been ascertained, has a speedy tendency to degeneracy, and to it must be imputed the absolute disappearance of the New Leicestershire cattle, and in numerous instances the deteriora

tion and decreased value of the New Leicestershire sheep and shorthorned cattle; in fact, this system is limited, so far as its benefits are concerned, unless the utmost care be observed in the selection and management of the animals, avoiding everything that can possibly tend to hereditary disease. It has, therefore, become a kind of principle with the most enlightened agriculturists of Europe and this country to effect some change in their stock every few years; and this change is most conveniently brought about by introducing a new ram or bull, which, in the judgment and experience of the breeder, will convince him will be likely to unite in their offspring the qualities sought. From their progeny, again, must be selected only those animals which more com‐ pletely exhibit the requisite qualities, and so on, from generation to generation, until the character desired is fully developed. The importance of continuing this process for a number of successive generations is obvious, from the fact that peculiar traits of character often disappear in the first, and reappear again in the second or third generation. A desired character may be found in the parent, and inherited by only a part of the offspring, and the requisite point can only be uniformly developed by a careful selection through several consecutive generations. By this process, it is apparent that this system must be adopted; yet, at the same time, it is desirable to avoid too close alliances. Hence, it is considered better to breed more distant members of the same family together than those that are more nearly related.

In improving the breeds of animals, the chief points to be arrived at consist in reducing the parts of the least value to the least possible dimensions, which may be regarded as offal, as the head, neck, legs, &c., while the large quarter, or ham, and deep chest, for fattening, and square, well-set udder, large milk veins, mellow skin, and kind temper for milking qualities, should all be developed to the greatest possible extent. In order to produce these, a strict regard should be paid to pairing, with the view of correcting an imperfection in one animal by a corresponding excellence in another. For the character of the parent is more fully impressed upon the offspring when the former is in the most vigorous period of life. Consequently, neither very young nor very old animals should be selected for the purpose of breeding. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment, and food should be favorable to the object sought, and particular care should be taken to bring the male to the mind and taste of the female, and for the first year, at least, that the young are well supplied with an abundance of nutritious food, and with comfortable shelter and shade. Furthermore, every female, while pregnant, should not only be well fed, but care should be observed that the food be of a proper kind. Let it be remembered, also, that the growing foetus has blood, flesh, and bones to form, as well as its mother, and therefore a greater proportion than usual of the constituents which go to make these must be supplied by the food of the dam; otherwise the foetus will suffer as well as its pa

Again, it should be borne in mind that no breeding animal, either male or female, should be made too fat; for the former would often become too heavy and unwieldy by their joints and sinews being, as it were, possessed with little action or effort, by a load of useless and injurious fat; neither would a female, in a state of pregnancy, be in a

natural and safe condition, either as regards herself or her young, when thus unnaturally encumbered.

The system of "crossing" is founded on a principle just as secure, as regards care in selection, as that adopted by Bakewell in breeding in-and-in. For it is well known that certain diseases are hereditary, and so is color, none of which can be changed or got rid of, except by crossing. This system, therefore, requires great care in selection, as well as in management. The tendency of "like begetting like," is forcibly illustrated in the results of crossing various breeds of cattle, such as Devons with Herefords, both the color and form of the parent animals being thereby modified or changed. A cross is comparatively the operation of a moment, and its end once attained, the breeder's object is not to repeat, but to maintain it.

As a general rule, domestic animals of all kinds, which have been produced by crossing, are the most profitable, both for meat and milk. But in all cases where a cross is attempted, with the object of improving a breed, be sure to have pure blood on one side. Before attending much to the subject, some persons fancy that crossings and intermixtures may be infinitely multiplied and continued, restricted only by the algebraic law of permutation and combination; and such is the current opinion among many who are accustomed to see the divers colors and appearance of animals bred promiscuously on the same neighborhood or farm. But the observant breeder knows that such is not the case. For nothing is more difficult than to establish a permanent intermediate race, even between two nearly allied varieties. After a few generations the character reverts to that of one or other of the parents; the peculiarities of an old type reappear, and the new cross, on which the fancier was beginning to glorify himself, vanishes. The more heterogeneous are the parents, the more sudden is the return to old established characters. The mongrel progeny are either utterly barren, or their young exhibit the likeness of their grandsire or grand-dam-not of their actual parents.

HORNED CATTLE.

ORIGIN OF THE BREEDS.

The origin of our domestic animals, as well as the propinquity, or family relation, of the different breeds, has given rise to much fruitless discussion. But the account handed down to us by the sacred historian should be received as satisfactory, and regarded as conclusive by every one. "And out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them, and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof." At this period, we have reason to believe, there were no wild animals nor hybrids, but one family of each race, unalloyed as to blood, uncontaminated by disease, and in the highest degree of perfection as to quality. But how many breeds Noah preserved of the anti-deluvian stock, neither sacred nor profane

writers give any definite information; while the breeds themselves, in modern times, afford ample materials for endless disquisition. The Mosaic account, for instance, is sufficiently broad to admit of a very wide construction; for the ox being a clean animal, according to the Adamic dispensation, subsequently re-ratified with the Hebrews at Sinai, either seven kinds or seven couple, (male and female,) of each kind, may have been preserved. The former is a definite number, and may therefore be assumed; but the latter is otherwise, leaving a wide field for the imagination to traverse among the existing breeds. Facts so simply and beautifully expressed as the above are beyond scepticism. One of the most interesting questions to the historian, the naturalist, of the physiologist, is, the distribution of the animal kingdom over the globe, the alienation of many of its members from the domestic society of man, and the almost illimitable extent to which degeneracy and hybridization have taken place throughout the whole. That the different races were perfect at first cannot be doubted; and the question naturally presents itself, which is now the nearest to the original? In the case of the ox, for instance, is the Shorthorn the best representative of the bovine family? or does the Devon, the Hereford, or the Ayrshire breed, approach nearest to perfection? Or has he descended from the Urus of the ancients, an extinct race, but described by Cæsar as inhabiting the great Hercynian forest? The wild cattle which, at present, most resemble the tame, are those inhabiting the forests of the northeast of Europe, and the race still preserved in their purity at Craven, at Chillingham Park, and in Scotland; but it is far more likely that they represent a race which has been allowed to change from a state of domestication to wildness. To suppose that our present breeds have descended from the Asiatic gayol, or the bison of either hemisphere, would be a physical impossibility, as each of these species differ mate rially, in the number of their ribs, from the common ox, besides other anatomical distinctions. The query, then, still remains to be answered, what was the original state? This is a question of fact, and can only be answered from history. But history is silent; her first books have been destroyed by time, and the few lines preserved by Moses are rather calculated to excite than to satisfy our curiosity. Hence nothing is left for us but humbly to assume the garb of ignorance, and ever be deterred from arriving at anything like unanimity in this great work of improvement. Could we analyze the migrations of our own species from clime to clime; could we trace the progress of the human swarms which, in the obscurity of time, have successively advanced from various points, spreading as they have proceeded, sometimes mingling with other nations, sometimes driving the older occupants of the soil before them; could we develop the history of man, the relationship of race to race, and point out their original seats and starting places, then might we be able to throw a clearer light on the origin of our domestic animals; but I maintain most unhesitatingly, as at the beginning, that it was not owing to any inherent tendency in the animals themselves, nor to man, nor to his domestication, which has produced these diversities, unless we admit that he arranged the strata in the ribs of the earth, and prescribed the everchanging boundaries to the sea. We