over the field, in the direction in which the wind blows, but this appearance of an object moving is delusive. The only real motion is that of the ears of grain, of which each goes and returns, as the stalk stoops and recovers itself. This motion affects successively a line of ears in the direction of the wind, and affects simultaneously all those ears of which the elevation or depression forms one visible wave. The elevations and depressions are propagated in a constant direction, while the parts with which the space is filled only vibrate to and fro. Of exactly such a nature is the propagation of sound through the air. The particles of air go and return through very minute spaces, and this vibratory motion runs through the atmosphere from the sounding body to the ear. Waves, not of elevation and depression, but of condensation and rarefaction, are transmitted; and the sound thus becomes an object of sense to the organ.

Another familiar instance of the propagation of vibrations we have in the circles on the surface of smooth water, which diverge from the point where it is touched by a small object, as a drop of rain. In the beginning of a shower for instance, when the drops come distinct, though frequent, we may see each drop giving rise to a ring, formed of two or three close concentric circles, which grow and spread, leaving the interior of the circles smooth, and gradually reaching parts

of the surface more and more distant from their origin. In this instance, it is clearly not a portion of the water which flows onwards; but the disturbance, the rise and fall of the surface which makes the ring-formed waves, passes into wider and wider circles, and thus the undulation is transmitted from its starting-place, to points in all directions on the surface of the fluid.

The diffusion of these ring-formed undulations from their centre resembles the diffusion of a sound from the place where it is produced to the points where it is heard. The disturbance, or vibration, by which it is conveyed, travels at the same rate in all directions, and the waves which are propagated are hence of a circular form. They differ, however, from those on the surface of water; for sound is communicated upwards and downwards, and in all intermediate directions, as well as horizontally; hence the waves of sound are spherical, the point where the sound is produced being the centre of the sphere.

This diffusion of vibrations in spherical shells of successive condensation and rarefaction, will easily be seen to be different from any local motion of the air, as wind, and to be independent of that. The circles on the surface of water will spread on a river which is flowing, provided it be smooth, as well as on a standing canal.

Not only are such undulations propagated almost undisturbed by any local motion of the

fluid in which they take place, but also, many may be propagated in the same fluid at the same time, without disturbing each other. We may see this effect on water. When several drops fall near each other, the circles which they produce cross each other, without either of them being lost, and the separate courses of the rings may still be traced.

All these consequences, both in water, in air, and in any other fluid, can be very exactly investigated upon mechanical principles, and the greater part of the phenomena can thus be shown to result from the properties of the fluids.

There are several remarkable circumstances in the way in which air answers its purpose as the vehicle of sound, of which we will now point out a few.

2. The loudness of sound is such as is convenient for common purposes. The organs of speech can, in the present constitution of the air, produce, without fatigue, such a tone of voice as can be heard with distinctness and with comfort. That any great alteration in this element might be incommodious, we may judge from the diffi culties to which persons are subject who are dull of hearing, and from the disagreeable effects of a voice much louder than usual, or so low as to be indistinct. Sounds produced by the human organs, with other kinds of air, are very different from those in our common air. If a man inhale

a quantity of hydrogen gas, and then speak, his voice is scarcely audible.

The loudness of sounds becomes smaller in proportion as they come from a greater distance. This enables us to judge of the distance of objects, in some degree at least, by the sounds which proceed from them. Moreover it is found that we can judge of the position of objects by the ear and this judgment seems to be formed by comparing the loudness of the impression of the same sound on the two ears and two sides of the head.*

The loudness of sounds appears to depend on the extent of vibration of the particles of air, and this is determined by the vibrations of the sounding body.

3. The pitch, or the differences of acute and grave, in sounds, form another important property, and one which fits them for a great part of their purposes. By the association of different notes, we have all the results of melody and harmony in musical sound; and of intonation and modulation of the voice, of accent, cadence, emphasis, expression, passion, in speech. The song of birds, which is one of their principal modes of communication, depends chiefly for its distinctions and its significance upon the combinations of acute and grave.

Mr. Gough in Manch. Mem. vol.

These differences are produced by the different rapidity of vibration of the particles of air. The gravest sound has about thirty vibrations in a second, the most acute about one thousand. Between these limits each sound has a musical character, and from the different relations of the number of vibrations in a second arise all the differences of musical intervals, concords and discords.

4. The quality of sounds is another of their differences. This is the name given to the difference of notes of the same pitch, that is the same note as to acute and grave, when produced by different instruments. If a flute and a violin be in unison, the notes are still quite different sounds. It is this kind of difference which distinguishes the voice of one man from that of another and it is manifestly therefore one of great consequence: since it connects the voice with the particular person, and is almost necessary in order that language may be a medium of intercourse between men.

5. The articulate character of sounds is for us one of the most important arrangements which exist in the world; for it is by this that sounds become the interpreters of thought, will and feeling, the means by which a person can convey his wants, his instructions, his promises, his kindness, to others; by which one man can regulate the actions and influence the convictions and judgments of another. It is in virtue of the pos