285. Summary.-1. Modern science has destroyed the doctrine of divine authority of social institutions and the doctrine of the lasting obligation of any contract which is in violation of the common good.

2. Modern science has established the fact that social institutions are a natural growth and that to attempt to perpetuate outgrown institutions involves the betrayal of both the present and of the future.

3. Modern science has made great contributions to the equipment and to the improved processes of production. These equipments and processes are of such a nature that the joint use of them is necessary and therefore make production more and more a matter of social and not an individual concern.

4. Sanitary science can never complete its work except on a scale which cannot be undertaken under enterprises conducted for the profit of stockholders in private enterprises.

5. The science of criminology establishes that crimes which are not the result of present social conditions, which must remain so long as capitalism lasts, are the result of mental conditions which can be remedied only by a series of generations under improved conditions -conditions which can come only under Socialism.

6. The law of the survival of the fittest demands that social conditions shall be of such a nature that the worthiest to survive shall also be fitted to the conditions under which they must survive, if at all. The industrial and commercial conditions now are of such a nature that only the unscrupulous and socially unworthy are best fitted to survive under them.

7. Under socialism the struggle for existence where one succeeds at another's loss, will change to a struggle for a better existence in which the achievements of one will not depend on the loss of others.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. What is meant by the word "science"?

2.

What are the two points which this chapter seeks to establish? 3. What was formerly held to be the basis of political authority? 4. What was thought of any efforts to improve society?

5. How was it finally discovered that peoples supposed to be acting under divine authority created the same institutions as those supposed to be acting under divine condemnation?

6. How has it been established that to change social forms is not sacrilegious?

7. What other doctrine has succeeded to the place formerly held by the divine right of kings?

8. How does the Constitution of the United States deny the divine right of kings theory and assert the social compact theory in its place?

9. On what ground does the Illinois Trust & Savings Company Bank continue to do business contrary to the provisions of the Constitution of Illinois ?

10. If contracts and constitutions do not create social changes, then by what forces are they created?

11. If wickedness and dishonor do not attach to those proposing improvements, to whom do they attach in the times of great social changes?

12. How is modern science related to steel plants, electricity, agriculture and the whole field of industry as related to machinery? 13. Why do these developments require Socialism in order that the benefits may be for all?

14. Why does sanitary science require the coming of Socialism? 15. In what way is the science of criminology related to the coming of Socialism?

16. Does the law of the survival of the fittest support or oppose the proposals of Socialists? Why?

CHAPTER XVIII

MACHINE PRODUCTION AND COLLECTIVISM

286. Aristotle on Machinery.-Aristotle said that slavery could not be abolished without the destruction of society, unless, perhaps, some machine could be devised which could undertake the drudgery of toil. The era of invention has realized the suggestion of Aristotle. Not some machine to take the place of the man, but a multitude of machines, each in its turn either taking the place of the worker altogether, or multiplying his productive powers many fold, have done away with the last possible necessity for destructive human labor.1

287. Joint Ownership and Use.-But in the creation of this machinery the use of great wealth is necessary,

1. "If every tool, when summoned, or even of its own accord, could do the work that befits it, just as the creations of Daedalus moved of themselves, or the tripods of Hephaestos went of their own accord; if the weavers' shuttles were to weave of themselves, then there would be no need of apprentices for the master workers or slaves for the lords."-Aristotle: Pol. A, iv., 4.

"The power capable of being exerted by the steam engines of the world in existence and working in the year 1887 has been estimated by the Bureau of Statistics at Berlin as equivalent to that of 200,000,000 horses, representing approximately 1,000,000,000, or at least three times the working population of the earth, whose total number of inhabitants is probably 1,460,000,000. The application and use of steam up to date (1889) has accordingly more than trebled man's working power, and by enabling him to economize his physical

and, as has been seen in Chapter IX., this great wealth has been provided by the joint possessions or savings of many people. The use of machinery also involves great organizations of workers, and thus machine production is seen to be necessarily associated, or social production. It was impossible that joint production should be carried on without joint interests in production. If joint or collective interest in production had

strength has given him greater leisure, comfort and abundance, and also greater opportunity for the mental training which is essential to a higher development. And yet it is certain that four-fifths of the steam engines now working in the world have been constructed in the last quarter of a century, or since 1865."-Wells: Recent Economic Changes, p. 44.

"About the year 1770 began to appear a remarkable series of inventions which ushered in what we may consider the modern era of industrial organization. They included Watt's development of the steam engine to a practical form, and some far-reaching innovations in the processes of the textile manufactures chief among which were the spinning frame and the spinning jenny.

"The immediate practical results of these were highly important. The factory system almost immediately sprang into vigorous life as their first fruits. But still more important was the fact that the process of development thus started has ever since been steadily going on, and generally at a constantly accelerating rate. It is in these closing years of the nineteenth century proceeding with a rapidity and energy never exceeded, and no one who understands the volume of the forces which are operating to produce it would undertake to form the slightest conception of its ultimate limits.

"A century of this process of development produced results almost beyond conception. This century brings us down to the year 1870a time fresh in the memory of many who still consider themselves young. Of course, these results as embodied in the status of society at this latter period are not difficult of comprehension in a general way. They were in the main the same as those we now see around us. But the vastness of the distance which society had moved in that century, and the magnitude and wonder of the achievement, can only be comprehended after a close study of the details involvedif, indeed, the human mind be at all adequate for such a task. The railroad, steamboat and telegraph; the processes of lithography_and photography; the rotary printing press, the Jacquard loom, the Fourdrinier paper machine; the cotton gin, the sewing machine, the reaping machine, these are but the beginning of the story. They are the striking landmarks of the triumphal progress, known to all the people, and each one of vast importance. But hardly less important in the aggregate than those (and similar other) works of genius, and even more characteristic of the period, is the multitude of minor inventions which were during this century applied to and which powerfully affected every branch of industry. The whole vast aggregate of the forces of production was multiplied many times in effec

never been suggested before the joint ownership and joint use of the great machines, the joint use of the machinery in the processes of production, and the necessity for a wide market in order to dispose of the goods would have made the suggestion and enforced the necessity for such an arrangement.

288. Co-operation Necessary.-Collectivism was a necessity in the primitive struggle for existence, mainly for reasons of defense. Machine production is a necessity, not so much for defensive reasons as because of its greater productive possibilities. But just as the necessities of defense made primitive man a co-operator, so the advantages of a greater production compel co-operation under the machine. .

289. Drudgery Unnecessary.-Under the use of rude tools, each worker could own his own tools and largely use his own products. Association in ownership, in production, or in disposing of the product, was not so necessary as under the use of modern machinery. Personal interest in the struggle for supremacy under capitalism has carried the equipment of labor to a point

tiveness by the children of man's mind, and the machinery which did their bidding at almost every point immeasurably outstripped in speed and deftness the unaided human hand.

"We are all tolerably familiar with the state of things in 1870. Let us painfully try to realize what it was a century before. Strike out, in imagination, the railroad, steamboat, telegraph, and all our modern wonder-workers; bring back the hand-loom and the spinningwheel; think of the slow canal-boats, and the heavily laden wagons toiling through the muddy roads, as the sole dependence for internal commerce. It is a far cry from that ancient day to this recent one. What shall we say is the difference in productive power between the two systems? How much more could a million men working in the modern way produce than a million workers of the olden times?

"It is a subject too vast for even an approximate estimate. No man knows, or can know, with any approach to accuracy. We have seen several estimates on this point from trained economists. The smallest comparative value assigned by any one of them to the power of the modern way was five-fold that of the ancient. Inadequate, indeed, this seems to us; the general estimate also is considerably higher-nearer twenty-fold."-Ferris: Pauperizing the Rich, PP. 125-127.