3. They characterized the ancient trades unions. 4. They were characteristic of the early Christian church.

5. They were features of the early forms of the free cities of Europe, coming either directly from barbarism in the North or indirectly through the associations of the slaves in the South.

6. The oldest fraternal societies are survivals of old industrial Democracies.

7. Modern trades unions are striving to establish the same ideals.

8. The war of monopoly, tyranny and inequality against Collectivism, Democracy and Equality, is the war between capitalism and Socialism.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

1. Carefully identify and discuss Collectivism, Democracy and Equality in all of the following:

(1) Savage and barbarian groups.
(2) The village communities.

(3) The ancient slave association.
(4) The early Christian church.
(5) The free cities.

(6) The guilds.

(7) Fraternal societies.

(8) Modern trades unions.

2. Can individuals deliver themselves from the conditions of the working class?

3. Why are monopoly, tyranny and inequality unsanitary social conditions?

4. Whence the origin of Socialism?

CHAPTER XV

COLLECTIVISM IN THE OWNERSHIP OF THE EARTH

227. Belongs to Man.-It is admitted that the earth belongs to man. No other animal is able to dispute his claim. But most men live and die with no legal claim to the earth or to any share of it. Does the earth belong to all men or to only a part of them? Does Collectivism or monopoly justly claim the right to rule in the matter of the ownership of the earth?

228. Belongs to All Men.-There is no possible theory of the earth's origin which does not argue for Collectivism and against monopoly, in favor of ownership by all and not by any part.

229. The Biblical Authority.—If it is claimed that the Biblical story of creation is a literal, detailed statement of the earth's origin, then those who hold to this view are bound to admit the force of the declarations of the same authority concerning the use of the earth. God said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth."- (Gen. 1:26). Only man was exempt from the dominion of men.

All men were to have dominion alike, for "There is no respect of persons with God."-(2 Chr. 19:7; Rom. 2:11; Eph. 6:9; Col. 3:25). And lest any should become the masters of others He declared "The land shall not be sold forever."-(Lev. 25:23). And when His chosen people had ignored these principles and poverty and oppression had followed, He said again: "Woe unto them that join house to house, that lay field to field, till there be no room, and ye be made to dwell alone (without land) in the midst of the land."-Is. 5:8).

These passages settle forever for those who hold to these authorities the question of ownership in favor of all the people.

230. The Scientific Defense.-If it is claimed that the earth is simply the product of natural forces, that is, that it is the result of the operation of forces still seen to be in operation, and that all questions of one's claims to the earth must be settled as the result of conclusions drawn from a study of the operation of these natural forces, then it is equally impossible to find any support for private monopoly in the ownership of what nature has so clearly provided for all.

231. The Monopolist and Nature.-In order to understand how utterly absurd the monopolist of natural resources must appear in contending for his claims, as inherent in the nature of things, listen to the story of the earth's origin as told according to what is called the nebular hypothesis.

232.-The Beginning.-If you will look up into the sky on any clear night you will see scattered along the path of the Milky Way vast spaces of what would seem to be fields of shining dust. That is what they are believed to be. Now the tendency of all bodies, no matter how great or small, is to fall together. If you will fill the washbowl in the bathroom and then pull

the plug, or if you will take a pan full of water and punch a hole through the center of the bottom, you will notice, as the water starts toward the center of the bowl or pan that very soon, instead of running straight to the point, it starts to run around it. Why it does this need not be considered here any more than why it should start in the first place. We observe that things always fall toward each other and we call it gravity, but we do not understand it any better after we have given it a name than we did before. When a comet starts to fall towards the sun, instead of falling straight to it, the comet falls around it and goes on its way unharmed. It is probably something of the same sort that happens in the pan or the washbowl, and this is the habit of falling bodies.1

233. The Forming of the Planets.-These great fields of star dust are no exception to all the rest and they are no sooner formed than the small particles take to falling towards each other and so towards a common center. As they fall towards and around each other, great bodies are formed, and great heat is created by the blows they give each other. They fall both around each other and towards a common center. Masses form and crash into each other and form again, and while the center becomes a great molten mass, the most distant portions not only move around the center, but, coming up from what would constitute the poles of these vast, moving masses, they form into great rings and go on revolving as before. The rings of Saturn are an illustration of this stage of development. The rings once formed, being more massive in one place than in some other, form a lateral attraction so stroug that the falling begins to follow the curved line of the ring's circumference until the ring grows into a ball.

1. Shaler: Outlines of the Earth's History, pp. 33-34.

As the ring was revolving around the center, so the ball continues to do so. In this way the earth's motion around the sun is explained. As the substance which composed the ball on falling towards its own center would fall around it, as it was falling into it, on be. coming a ball, would continue to revolve, as the earth does on its own axis. As the substance of such a ball would come towards its own center, the rings would be formed, and these, finally, would come to be balls and go on revolving as the rings had done. The moon was so formed.

234. The Making of the Earth's Surface. The heat evolved by such a movement of worlds is beyond calculation. Once at its height the creation of new heat ceases. Radiation continues and the whole system begins to cool off. As the planet cools, through the pas sage of the centuries, water, which before had existed as gases, finally appears, and then the fire and water fight for the mastery and the cooling goes on more rapidly. The molten mass is now cooling into fire-fused rocks which form the foundation of the earth. The water, and finally the frost, join hands to break and grind the surface of these rocks. The storms and the seas wash the smaller particles away to deposit them elsewhere, and through the centuries they become the water-laid rocks of geologic time. As the surface cools, the interior remains a molten mass. As the interior cools further and further from the surface, the interior must contract in bulk, leaving great earth crusts of unsupported surface. This surface, bearing the burden of half a world, must contract in order to find support. In doing so the surface sinks at one place, but must rise at some other, and so the mountains are lifted up and the building of the continents begins.2

Forms of life appear; vegetation, rank and boundless, provides the substance for the coal fields, and

2. Shaler: p. 90.