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questioned whether it should extend to ordinary criminals. In Switzerland, moreover, the proceedings of certain revolutionists had distinctly turned popular feeling against Russians generally.

From the economic point of view, the year would not be remembered favourably. Business slackened; the tourist season was less successful than usual, and the great exporting industries-embroidery, watch- and clock-making, and silk-found their sales considerably diminished. There was much unemployment, complete or partial; only agriculture prospered, thanks to abundant crops.

Mention must also be made of the two serious accidents at the Lötschberg tunnel-the fall of an avalanche on the south side (Feb. 29), and an inundation in July, due to the penetration of the stream of the Kander into its northern section. In all thirty-seven persons were killed. Other noteworthy events were the completion of the Ricken tunnel, 8,604 metres in length, in Canton St. Gall, on the railway connecting Baden with Toggenburg and Zürich; the fire which destroyed the village of Bonaduz in the Grisons; and the victory of Colonel Schaeck in the Gordon-Bennett motor race.

IV. SPAIN.

The Anarchist outrage which had sent Barcelona into mourning at the close of 1907 had been met, as usual, by a decree in the official Gazette, suspending the guarantees of the liberty of the subject provided by the Constitution. The remedy was worse than the disease; for bomb explosions continued, in spite of the suspension, in the by-ways of the Catalonian capital. It had at any rate one advantage for the Ministry; it set up a split in the solidarist Catalan coalition. Señor Cambo and his friends of the Right approved the measure; the Republicans stigmatised it as equally useless and unjust. The criticisms addressed to the Government resulted in inciting Señor Maura to greater stringency; a Bill punishing Anarchist intrigues was hastily drafted for submission to the Cortes. Shortly before the session began, the arrival of M. Pichon, the French Foreign Minister, his visits to Señor Allendesalazar, who held that office in the Spanish Cabinet, and his interviews with the King and the Prime Minister, gave ample matter for discussion respecting the affairs of Morocco. Spanish opinion was generally disposed to support restriction rather than extension of the part taken in that country by the troops furnished by Spain. The Foreign Minister sanctioned the publication of a Red Book, which, however, did not appear for some months; meanwhile, he indicated through the semi-official Press his resolve to keep to the strictest interpretation of the Act of Algeciras.

The Cortes met on January 23. The Bill for the repression of Anarchist plots was at once introduced into the Senate; that

body was appalled at the extreme character of the Ministerial demands. The publication of news (other than official news) relative to the offences under the Act and the persons implicated in prosecutions for offences under it was punishable by imprisonment. This was giving an altogether excessive privilege to the police, which in Spain is the object of considerable suspicion. Again, a junta of civil officials and military officers was empowered to suppress suspected newspapers, to banish terrorists, and to condemn exiles returning without leave from transportation to tropical colonies. It will be easily understood that the Senate exhibited no enthusiasm in its examination of these Draconian clauses. Señor Maura, however, was inexorable. When fresh bomb explosions took place in Barcelona, he had no hesitation in applying to this Latin city the system existing in St. Petersburg; the concierges of houses were made responsible to the police in regard to the buildings they served, and were given the right of arrest; and the peaceful rural watchmen and gardes champêtres were charged with powers of supervision (Feb. 25).

Pending the arrival, which was impatiently awaited, of the Catalan deputies at Madrid, the Government brought forward a certain number of Bills in the Chamber relating to the economic development of the kingdom-establishing new lines of railway; making concessions on the part of the Treasury to religious houses with regard to property left in mortmain; and obviating the loss to municipalities caused by the reduction of taxation on wines. This question caused the retirement of Señor Osma, who was succeeded by Señor Sanchez Bustillo. Eventually the Chamber began work on the Local Administration Bill, the leading measure of Señor Maura's term of office. The Bill gave representation in local elections to corporations, and, by Clause 36, established an educational franchise, and reduced the power of the individual vote. The whole Liberal party protested against the Bill, and resorted to obstruction. It comprised 410 clauses and five additional provisions. The Opposition put down 1,200 amendments, any one of which might take one or more sittings for its discussion; it seemed utterly impossible that first the Chamber and then the Senate could ever reach an agreement on so large a number of disputed points. It seemed also impracticable to reconcile the almost complete autonomy in matters of local taxation granted to the 8,000 communes of Spain with the old habits of tutelage which Ministers and Governors would not find it easy to abandon. While public men, with a brave front but failing hearts, discussed these constitutional problems, the young King, with that impetuosity combined with clear-sightedness which he has so often exhibited, decided to attempt to capture the Separatist capital by pacific means, by visiting Barcelona confidently and as a friend. The opportunity for this chivalrous proceeding was furnished by the arrival at that port of the Austrian fleet; the success of the visit (March 10-13) surpassed the highest

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expectations. Amid enthusiastic demonstrations and cheers for "El Rey valiente," the brave King, Alfonso XIII. repeatedly passed through the most crowded streets without an escort, but guarded by his entire people; and no unfortunate incident happened before his departure for Madrid. True, the bomb explosions began again next day, but it may be said that the spell was broken. Three offenders were eventually arrested; their trial revealed strange practices among the Barcelona secret police. The scandalous disclosures coincided with the period of greatest excitement in the discussion of Señor Maura's two Bills -that dealing with the repression of anarchy in the Senate, that on local administration in the Lower House. One of the accused committed suicide in prison; a second was convicted and executed; but the Government realised that the police system in Catalonia urgently needed reform. By decree, a superintendent-in-chief was established at Barcelona, to exercise supervision over the whole body of police in the province. This solution naturally displeased the Catalan Solidarists, but they were divided as to the reception to be given to the measure in the Cortes. A split took place also in the Republican party with regard to the obstructionist tactics employed against the Local Administration Bill. Señor Azcarate and Señor Melquiadez Alvarez showed themselves favourable to a compromise, while eight other deputies refused to hear of such a course. Among these were Señors Perez Galdos, Soriano, and Calzado, who were expelled from the party for insubordination.

After a short adjournment for Easter, the Cortes resumed at the end of April. Delicate negotiations began between the Prime Minister, assisted by Don Eduardo Dato, and the leaders of the Liberal and Republican sections of the Opposition. It was proposed to divide the Local Administration Bill. The Chamber would discuss the first part, which was then to be sent to the Senate, while the Chamber was dealing with Part II.; when the Chambers should have reached an agreement, the Bill would become law. The minority refused this arrangement; the obstruction began again, its tedium intensified by the hot weather. It was the Government that gave way first. The Senate had at last finished the detailed examination of the law dealing with the terrorists; but, on the question that the Bill should pass, the Opposition threatened to withdraw; and to secure a quorum the Ministry was obliged to require the attendance of all the Senators holding appointments in the public service. Thanks to this step, the law received eight more votes than were needed to pass it. But on May 9 the situation was clearly critical. The Bill had been introduced into the Chamber two days earlier; that body at once appointed a Committee which resolved on a thorough investigation. Abundant means of information was supplied to it. The Press Defence Committee organised a movement of protest against the Bill. The working-men's organisations sent assurances of their support

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to the adverse movement. The Opposition held a great meeting at the Princesa Theatre at Madrid; the Ministers themselves were divided, and rumours of a crisis were rife. In spite of Señor Maura's persistent support of the Bill, he could not allow the Minister of Finance to resign at the moment when this latter was at last about to announce his plans for a new internal loan intending to meet outstanding payments. He therefore laid before the King for signature a decree re-establishing the guarantees for constitutional liberty of the subject in Catalonia. King Alfonso then intervened, and advised the Prime Minister to resort to conciliation. The Committee of the Cortes decided to postpone its report sine die.

Relieved of this heavy burden, the Government proved its energy by requiring the Cortes to proceed immediately to the discussion of the Local Administration Bill. The Ministerialist deputies were formed into a series of groups which had orders to attend the House in rotation. This device, however, was copied by the Liberal leader. The Solidarists then proposed to repeal the law passed in 1905, relegating offences against the Army to trial by court-martial; the Ministry, however, succeeded in defeating the proposal. The Chambers also showed their submissiveness by authorising the Finance Minister to withdraw from circulation the douros Sevillanos (fivepeseta pieces coined at Seville) which formed an illegal silver currency, and by making progress with the Local Administration Bill up to clause 268, thus disposing of the part dealing with local administration and municipal finance. The session closed on July 24.

During the summer recess economic questions were prominent. The Bank of Spain refused to receive the "douros Sevillanos" at its counters, as it was not easy to distinguish the good coins among them from the bad; the Treasury undertook the task, and from August 10 to August 24 they were presented to the value of 25,000,000 pesetas (1,000,000). The whole stock was probably not exhausted, but the operation purified the currency, and was decidedly beneficial. Some days later, Don Sanchez Bustillo resigned the portfolio of Finance for reasons of health, which were unfortunately only too well founded, for he died four days after the appointment of hist successor, Don Gonzalez Besada, hitherto Minister of Public Works, that post being taken by Don J. Sanchez Guerra, Governor of the Bank of Spain. The Franco-Spanish Exhibition at Saragossa, the Socialist and Carlist Congress, and the varying phases of Spanish intervention in Morocco occupied the attention of the public and the Press without undue excitement of feeling.

The Cortes resumed the session on October 12. Don Eduardo Dato was elected President without a dissentient voice. The Vice-Presidential functions were assigned to three Ministerialists, and to Don G. Azcarate, the leader of the Republican minority.

This done, the first care of the Chamber was to pay a tribute to the memory of Señor Salmeron, who had died in the recess. The relaxation of political tension was manifested by various signs. The King, accompanied by the Prime Minister, made what was virtually a triumphal progress in the north-eastern districts. At Barcelona the Mayor addressed them in Catalan; the King, having answered in the same tongue, was installed as Canon of the Cathedral according to the ritual used at the receptions of the Emperor Charles V. and the King Charles III. He received an equally warm welcome at Saragossa. The Finance Minister induced the Cabinet to accept his plan for the purification of the currency and the reorganisation of the Bank of Spain. Señor Moret, on the other hand, conferred with Señor Canalejas on the reconstitution of the Liberal party, and gave up his intention of addressing an interpellation to the Government on its concessions to the Catalan solidarist party. After a few days' truce, however, the struggle began again. The Minister of Finance was first attacked. A disciple of his eminent predecessor, Señor Villaverde, he was holding in readiness a great number of Bills relating to the Bank of Spain, the readjustment of duties on alcohols distilled from wine or other matters, and the imposition of taxes on the religious orders. But he defended the Treasury with some spirit against the attacks of his colleagues, notably those of General Primo di Rivera, the War Minister. This latter claimed to proceed at once largely to increase the effective force, and consequently expenditure. The Chief of the General Staff, General V. Maritegui, intimated that matters might wait. He was removed from his post. Meanwhile the Budget debate was opened on November 14, a somewhat late date, by an important speech from Señor Moret, attacking the financial policy of the Conservative party. Three days later, at a great Liberal meeting at Saragossa, this indefatigable leader set forth the new Liberal programme, laying stress on its anti-Clerical character, and severely criticising the concessions made to the teaching Orders by Don F. Rodriguez San Pedro, the Minister of Public Instruction. Finally, the Minister of the Interior took immediate steps to secure the simultaneous examination by the two Chambers of the interminable Local Administration Bill. An unexpected incident disorganised the Opposition. On December 13 bye-elections for four seats took place at Barcelona. In 1907 the Solidarists had obtained 52,000 votes; this time the number of their supporters was reduced by more than one-half; the Conservative wing of the party only just succeeded in returning one of its candidates; the three other successful candidates were anti-Solidarist Republicans, among them Señor Lerroux, who was in exile. On the following Sunday two Republicans were also elected at Valencia. The Cortes had already adjourned after hurriedly passing the Budget, leaving, however, the completion of the Local Administration Bill till

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