he eliminaon of reli chools |reates the roblem of roviding for eligious nstruction One of the present tendencies gives rise to a new educational problem, and at the same time solves an old one. The complete on from the secularization of schools has led to the complete exclusion of religious elements in public education, and the very general exclusion of the study or even the use of the Bible and of all religious literature. Thus the material that a few generations ago furnished the sole content of elementary education is now entirely excluded and the problem of religious education is presented. Little attempt at solution is being made and little interest seems to be aroused. The problem for the public school teacher comes to be quite similar to that presented by the Greek philosophers, to produce character through an education that is dominantly rational and that excludes the use of the supernatural or religious element. For our schools we have definitely rejected revealed religion as a basis for morality and seek to find a sufficient basis in the development of rationality in the child. Thus one most important phase of education is left to the Church and the home, neither of which is doing much to meet the demand. Expansion of work of -school to meet new social needs Another tendency is the expansion of the scope of school work. Much of the work recently included within schoolroom instruction is yet inadequately organized and hence indifferently presented. Unsatisfactory results follow. But undoubtedly the need is simply for more experience. What new social conditions have demanded, new school conditions must supply. The work of the school can no longer be restricted to the merest rudiments or instruments of learning. What is now demanded are the rudiments of living, the instruments needed for successful life in complex modern civilization. The most prominent phase of this tendency of the present is the incorporation of the industrial element in all school work. This argues a radical reshaping of our idea of education as well as of the instructing process. Education is to be broader, schoolroom instruction more helpful, more immediately practical, more directly related to conduct, and hence more moral. Whether this is a Liberal sup port of edu cation by society peace, general concession to materialism or not, is too large a problem to be discussed here. Whether it is, in any individual case, depends for the most part on the teacher. This new tendency which bids fair to increase far beyond present experience is wholly in answer to new social demands: And society must accompany these demands with a corresponding service, liberality in the support of education greater than ever shown before. The expenditures for education in the present are unprecedented; but they are not to be a precedent for the future. HARMONIZATION OF INTEREST AND EFFORT.-The Dominance of disciplineclectic character of present educational thought and practice ary idea, a is shown by the endeavor made to unify the elements of interest period of and effort in theory and in schoolroom procedure. The long period of peace, during which the conception of education as effort or as discipline prevailed, was succeeded by that period of conflict between the idea of education as discipline and the idea of education as a natural process determined wholly by the interests of the child. Both practical experience and further theoretical investigation are showing that the interpretation of education from the point of view of interest alone is as partial as the old interpretation of education as discipline. Consequently the present tendency is one of reconciliation, of interest interest and effort, as the basis of educational practice. The period of conflict occupied the second half of the eighteenth and practically all of the nineteenth century. The period of reconciliation in our own country is practically that of the present generation. Interest is essential as the starting point of the educative process; effort is essential as its outcome. The purpose of appealing to the interest of the child is to lead him to the point where he will put forth effort to master the unsolved problems, the undetermined relationships of his environment, whether of the schoolroom or of life. The object of the old education of effort was to develop in the child the power of voluntary attention, of application, of strength of will, that would enable him followed by period of conflict with naturalistic idea con trolled by The presen is a period of reconcilia terest and effort Interest the starting outcome to overcome the obstacles or to accomplish the tasks of each point; effort day's experience. The object of the new education of reconor power of ciliation is to reach the same end through immediate appeal to voluntary attention the spontaneous attention and to the native interests of the child. The old was valid only for the comparatively few who were of such native ability as to profit by the training. The new, by building upon the essentials of human nature itself, seeks to secure that development for all. In both, the purpose is to produce that motivation in moral judgment and that power of accomplishment in action, the combination of which is character. This view - renders the object of education attainable by all Neither in terest nor effort a sufficient ! guide; Neither interest nor effort is an end in itself; neither interest nor effort alone is a sufficient guide to the educative process. Interest is the condition of mind arising out of the child's own powers and needs in response to stimuli from his environment. Effort is the other side of the same situation and represents the discharge in response to the stimuli, a response that calls for a greater expenditure of energy than can be sustained by the same process original exciting interest. What is aimed at in education through a combination of both interest and effort is the production of a The result is type of mind that includes power of rational insight, of delibera but are two sides of the character The problem of the schoolroom tion, of independence of judgment, of firmness of decision, and of effective action. To secure this, both interest and effort must be depended upon or called forth in the educative process. The problem of the schoolroom, then, is neither by authority to hold the child to the mastery of certain tasks which are uninteresting in themselves and from which his attention is withdrawn the moment the external pressure is removed, and thus to develop will power and moral character; nor, on the other hand, is it the work of the school so to surround the needed activities or learning processes with factitious interests as to sugar coat the pills of schoolroom tasks. The harmonization of the problem of effort and interest consists in so relating the tasks of the schoolroom to the real life of the child, by drawing them directly from the activities of the child and of society, that is to relate education to secure both life and thus effort ↓ he grows into his fuller adult self through assimilation into his own personality of that which is, and which he recognizes to be, an essential part of the life of society around him. This activity is effort; interest consists in arousing in the child the realiza- interest and tion of its vital relation to his own life. Personality is expanded and character produced as this possible relationship is developed into a normal and an abiding reality in the life of the individual. THE MEANING OF EDUCATION, as conceived in the present, is found in this harmonization of interest and effort. This is but another attempt to solve the problem of the individual and of society, which, as we have seen, has been the educational problem as it has been the ethical problem, from the beginning of human life. How is the individual to be educated so as to secure the full development of personality and at the same time preserve the stability of institutional life and assist in its evolution to a higher state? It is the old problem of securing The probler both individual liberty and social justice. Interest and effort give in modern form Aristotle's problem of well-being and welldoing. Interest, representing the emphasis or the factor of individualism, is an outgrowth of the naturalistic movement of the eighteenth century. The education of effort is the survival in conservative circles of the old education of authority expressive of the religious and social views prevalent since the Reformation period. These views have survived longest in educational institutions that are controlled by religious denomiations or by certain dominant classes in society, as in the English public schools and universities. of educatio problem of adjusting th is the old individual t society, so to preserve individual liberty and social stability an justice of individualistic facto The definitions of education throughout this earlier period Dominance were given in terms of training for institutional or social life (Chapter IX). The definitions of education acceptable to the in nineteent new thought of the nineteenth century were those couched in terms of individual development, as that of Pestalozzi (Chapter XI). The meaning of education, as at present conceived, is found in the attempt to combine and to balance these two elements of century definitions ncy toward social factor emphasis on ecent tend- individual rights and social duties, of personal development and social service. The meaning of education in the present finds its whole significance in this very process of relating the individual to society, so as to secure both development of personality and social welfare. It is true that for the last two decades the tendency in thought, in reaction to the extreme emphasis on interest and on individualism, has been to stress the social factor. Education has been defined as preparation for citizenship, as adjustment to society, as preparation for life in institutions, as the acquisition of the racial inheritance. Present > harmon ze both actors in efinitions of ducation But definitions more acceptable to present thought seek to hought aims combine both factors and to find a harmonization of them in the nature of the educational process. Thus Professor James, from the psychological and hence individualistic point of view, defines education as "the organization of acquired habits of action such as will fit the individual to his physical and social environment." President Butler's view emphasizes the sociological aspect but gives both elements. It is that education is the "gradual adjustment of the individual to the spiritual possessions of the race." Professor Horne's definition clearly reveals this eclectic tendency as including the psychological, the scientific, and the sociological elements in our present thought of education. This definition is as follows: "Education is the superior adjustment of a physically and mentally developed conscious human being to his intellectual, emotional and volitional environment." Professor Dewey defines education as "the process of remaking experience, giving it a more socialized value through increased individual experience, by giving the individual better control over his own powers." Here both individual and social factors are emphasized and harmonized. From whatever line of investigation the problem of education is now approached, its meaning is given in some terms of this harmonization of social and individual factors. It is the process lucation by of conforming the individual to the given social standard or type in such a manner that his inherent capacities are developed, similar eaning ven to Irrent *actice |