the education of all. Gymnastics and physical education were given a place new to German thought. con Luther clearly saw the fundamental importance of universal Luther's education for the Reformation and insisted upon it throughouting uni his teachings. Schooling was to be brought to all the people, versal edunoble and common, rich and poor; it was to include both boys and girls — a remarkable advance; finally, the state was to frame laws for compulsory attendance. In the Address previously mentioned Luther wrote: cation of a school "I by no means approve of those schools where a child was accustomed Luther's to pass twenty or thirty years in studying Donatus or Alexander, without conception learning anything. Another world has dawned, in which things go differently. My opinion is that we must send the boys to school one or two hours a day, and have them learn a trade at home for the rest of the time. It is desirable that these two occupations march side by side." It was further his opinion that the authorities were "bound to force their subjects to send their children to school," just as they compelled every subject to render military service and for much the same reason; namely, for the defense and the prosperity of the state. Consequently, education should be statesupported and state-controlled. The concrete work of carrying ideas into effect was left to his followers. Chief among these was Melanchthon. Philip Melanchthon (1479-1560) is called the Preceptor of Germany, for he was to Germany in educational reform what Luther was in religious reform. The title was not given without good reason, for at his death there was scarcely a city in all Germany but had modified its schools according to Melanchthon's direct advice or after his general suggestions, and scarcely a school of any importance but numbered some pupil of his among its teachers. Wittenberg was the center from which radiated these influences, united as they were with those of Luther. In this university Melanchthon labored for the last forty-two years of his life. Through his influence the university was soon remodeled along humanistic and Protestant lines, and became the Reason for terming Preceptor of Work at the Influence of model of the many new universities of Germany. To Withis pupils as tenberg flocked students by the thousand, drawn by Melanchteachers thon's great reputation. From Wittenberg, in turn, were sent out teachers carrying Melanchthon's idea into all Germany. If a prince needed a professor for his university or a city a rector for its schools, Melanchthon was consulted and most naturally one of his pupils chosen. The most distinguished teachers of this period, such as Neander and Trotzendorf, were his pupils, or, like Sturm, dependent upon him for counsel. Through his correspondence and visitation of schools he led in educational reform. Melanchthon's textbooks The Saxony school plan Humanistic schools become Reformation schools Melanchthon's contact with the individual pupil was mainly through his many text-books. When sixteen years of age, he wrote the Greek grammar which later became almost universally the text for the German schools. His Latin grammar, written later, achieved a similar vogue. His texts on dialectic, rhetoric, ethics, physics, history, were similarly useful in the lower schools; and his theology became the great text for Protestant universities and higher schools. Through his formulation of the Visitation Articles of Saxony in 1528 (p. 208), drawn up at the request of the Elector, he became the founder of the modern state school system. Melanchthon's pedagogical writings consist chiefly of inaugural addresses or lectures to students on the value of the study of literature and philosophy. They are of importance only as indicating the content and spirit of the humanistic education. TYPES OF RELIGIOUS SCHOOLS. The Universities. The history of the universities of the German states during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was determined by the progress of the Protestant religion and was almost identical with the development of Protestant theology. Wittenberg, founded in 1502 as the first university of the new learning, became through the residence of Luther and Melanchthon the very center of Protestantism. The universities gradually threw off their alle versities giance to the pope and transferred it to the temporal princes. New uniSince their support was now derived from the favor of these governments instead of from ecclesiastical sources, the control exerted by the princes became determinative. To a considerable extent their support came from the dissolution of old monastic and ecclesiastical foundations. Marburg, founded in 1527, was the first of these Protestant universities, while Königsberg, Jena, Helmstadt, Dorpat, and a number of others were added within a century. Within this same period seven Roman Catholic universities were founded within the limits of the German states. Several during the same period grew out of gymnasien, as the one at Strasburg (1621) from Sturm's school, and the one at Altdorf (1578) from a famous institution at Nuremberg. Both of these were Protestant. The work in many of these was of a high character, and their influence great. Altdorf, for work of the example, though very poor, is said to have contributed more to reformed philosophical study than all of the universities of the British universities empire. Yet, in general, by the seventeenth century the activities of these institutions degenerated into the lifeless formalism previously mentioned. A German historian remarks that the dominant theological interest "called into existence a dialectic scholasticism, which was in no way inferior to that of the most flourishing period of the Middle Ages, either in the greatness or minuteness of the careful and acute development of its scientific form, or in the full and accurate exhibition of its religious contents." In England the connection between the Reformation and the universities followed a similar course. At Cambridge, where the Reformation centered, the movement began early in the period, under the leadership of Tyndale (c. 1484-1536) and Latimer (1485-1555). The dissolution of the monasteries and friaries which formed so important a part of Oxford and Cambridge occasioned considerable diminution in their power and effectiveness. This was gradually offset by the founding of new colleges from the spoils of these dissolutions and by the establish German The Reforthe English universities mation in Humanistic schools now controlled by the states and cities ment of regius professorships. In various other ways the monarch and the national Church came to the support of the universities, but in time the degeneracy in work and life of these institutions was even more marked than in those of Germany. Protestant Control of the Humanistic Secondary Schools. The movement toward the secularization of the Latin schools, begun in the fifteenth century, was completed by the Reformation movement in the sixteenth. This secularization related to the control of schools and not to the purpose and character of study. Even under state control the dominant motive was the religious one. The rectors of these schools, as well as many of their teachers, were Protestant leaders or ministers. The dominant influence in the boards of control and visitation was always Influence of exercised by the representative of the Church. The new schools founded were shaped by Melanchthon's "School Plan," which was thoroughly humanistic in the sense that Erasmus and Luther would approve. The purpose was chiefly religious and political, rather than humanitarian in the broader sense. In content little difference, if any, from the old schools can be discovered. A little Greek and less mathematics were added to the Latin curriculum. No attention was paid to the vernacular. Melanch thon's School Plan State system schools A more striking change was the organization of these schools of secondary into systems, through the coöperation of the state with the municipalities. The first distinctly Protestant gymnasium was that of Magdeburg, founded from the union of the old parochial schools in 1524. The following year Melanchthon drew up his plan of a gymnasium for the school of Eisleben, the birthplace of Luther. In 1528 the electorate of Saxony established the first general system of such schools. It provided for the founding of Latin schools on Melanchthon's plan in all the towns and villages of Saxony. The Duchy of Würtemberg followed in 1559 and the other German states later. In England these secondary schools have not to this day been organized into a system. However, they remained practically under the control of the national Church. The reorganization under inde of these schools by Henry VIII and Edward VI was for the pur- In England pose of destroying the monastic and ecclesiastical control. Each such schools was placed on a separate foundation, but most of them were so pendent organized that the masters and fellows, the teaching and the control: the controlling bodies, must be from the clergy of the Established lic schools Church. Thus they remained until the reforms of the nineteenth century. English pub The Teaching Congregations. orders of th Roman Church No more conclusive evidence The teachin can be cited of the effectiveness of the Protestant schools as a means of reforming social and ecclesiastical evils and of establish- Catholic ing churches, than the adoption of the same means by the Roman Catholic Church. The instruments of the church were the new monastic or teaching orders. With the old monastic orders educational efforts were wholly subordinate. More important still, they were hostile in their nature and spirit to the new ideas and methods. The teaching orders adopted such ideas and methods, as improved upon by the Reformation schools, and exalted educational effort as their chief purpose. Until the early part of the nineteenth century these orders controlled secondary |