of emotions ages had expressed this interest by means of a literature and an art incomparably superior to any produced during the intervening centuries, which had been indifferent to them. The second of these worlds was the subjective world of emotions, of the (2) the subjoy of living, of the contemplative pleasures and satisfactions jective world of this life, and of the appreciation of the beautiful. The interest in introspective observation and analysis was now from the æsthetic and human point of view rather than from the philosophical and religious. The means of entrance to such a world as this is through the fullest participation in the activities and interests of the life around one. The purpose of such a life is self-culture and improvement. The outcome of it is literature and art. Of this world medieval thought had (3) the natbeen wholly ignorant. The third of these worlds was that of physical nature. This realm was not only unknown to the people of the mediaval centuries, but any study of it had been considered ignoble and debasing in its influence on man. ural world These new interests led to study of classical The first of these great world discoveries led to a wider and more intensive study of the Latin and Greek languages, and to a devotion to the classic literature of both languages. Then followed a search for the manuscript remains of this literature until literatures, substantially all that we possess to-day had been brought to light. The passion for the collection of these manuscripts led to their multiplication, and finally through the discovery of printing to their general dissemination. The mistake should not be made, however, of confusing the means of this Renaissance with its cause or with its end. The recovery of the classical literature was not the cause, for that lies far deeper and more remote in the whole movement of history and of thought. Not even in the case of the few notable leaders, such as Petrarch, who were possessed by a consuming passion for the recovery of the works of the ancients, was this the dominant purpose. These books were merely means to that advancement in knowledge and that breadth of view and of experience which made these men the earlier leaders of this movement. M to æsthetic and artistic creation, Through the study of these literatures, a new interest in all appreciation which appeals to the imagination and to the heart was created. While the appreciation of the beautiful and the emotional in literary form was the most general, yet æsthetic appreciation and artistic endeavor in every form became more prevalent than at any other period in history. and to invention and discoveries The transition was a gradual one Introspective analysis of the emotional life led to the production of art and literature, including poetry, the drama and romance; to an interest in new motives as revealed in history and in contemporary life; and consequently to the formulation of the historical and social sciences. While at first this development seemed to be through the exclusion of the previously absorbing religious interest, yet during the sixteenth century thought life again became dominantly religious, but on a humanistic rather than on a scholastic basis. Finally through the beliefs and methods of the Greeks, the Renaissance students were led to direct observation and experimentation with natural phenomena. These, in turn, led to geographical discovery and exploration both by land and by sea and to those astronomical discoveries that were to become the basis of modern scientific thought. This naturalistic aspect of the Renaissance led in time to a modification of all thought and connects directly with the work of Bacon and Descartes in the seventeenth century and with the physical and biological investigations of modern science. Thus, in a very true sense, the educational development discussed in the three following chapters are but later phases of Renaissance influence. The transition from the old learning to the new was not an abrupt one; clear definition of the new spirit came about very gradually. Even its triumph did not involve the disappearance of the old spirit. Both in educational interests and in those wider ones involving the human intellect and the human spirit, old methods of thought, as well as old ideas and ideals, continued active for many centuries. In fact, they have persisted even to the present day. But the dominant ideal which gave character to the period soon came to be that developed by the new knowledge. sities; THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY. As the political, religious Influence of and intellectual life of the times centered in Italy, so also did the univerthe Renaissance movement. The period was the latter half of the fourteenth and all of the fifteenth century. The causes of this movement are discoverable in the influence of the universities and in the intensity of the intellectual activity of the thirteenth century. The personal connecting link is found in Dante (1264-1321), whose spirit was partly medieval, partly of Dante; modern. During the later mediæval centuries a knowledge of the Latin classics was not an unknown thing, for the manuscript copies of many of these were in existence. Vergil at least was quite well known. But there was little appreciation of their beauty as literature, little sympathy with the interests of the classical times, and little toleration of the study of these classics, to the detriment of the study of dialectic based upon Aristotle, and of the patristic and scholastic literature in general. of this new interest in literature Petrarch as the Representative of the New Spirit. — Against of Petrarch the dominant educational ideas of the times, against scholasticism and Aristotelianism, Petrarch (1304-1374) strove with all his might. With his genius for leadership and his power of stimulating enthusiasm, he created a general interest in the Significance classics in direct opposition to the ordinarily accepted interests of students, of institutions of learning, of the Church and of classical Churchmen. Petrarch was not alone in this. But he holds a place in the history of education as the first great representative of a new type of intellectual life. To-day, when we can readily obtain a knowledge of the best that has been thought and done without going back to antiquity, it is difficult to realize the importance of this work. At that time there was no vernacular literature to speak of and the human interests of the Greek and Latin literatures had been replaced by the narrow religious and ecclesiastical interests of the Middle Ages. Consequently, A means of self-development Petrarch's there is no parallel between the importance of the study of Latin and Greek in recent centuries and its importance during these centuries of the Renaissance period. The Work of Petrarch and his confrères possessed more than this negative value of protest against the restrictions of mediævalism. It had also the positive merit of emphasizing the value of the opportunities of this life for self-development through varied experiences. Many such activities or sources of experience had been wholly forbidden by the asceticism and self-abnegation of the medieval spirit. Petrarch's writings are the first in modern times to reveal the human soul in the whole gamut of passions, sufferings and aspirations. Here is first found that attitude of self-analysis that becomes a characteristic note in modern literature and thought. As a reaction against the all-controlling "other worldliness" of the Middle Ages, one aspect of this new motive was the substitution of the idea of a worldly immortality. This later gave rise to that revival of paganism characteristic of the Italian Renaissance. In the narrower sense, none of Petrarch's writings are eduwritings only cational. The more important of them are his Sonnets in the indirectly educational vernacular, characterized by their introspective emotionalism, which give them an important place in the history of modern literature; his Lives of Ancient Men, wherein both Greeks and Romans become alive to modern men; and his very numerous Letters, wherein are revealed the development and the dissemination of the Renaissance spirit. It is not the content of these works that gives Petrarch a place in the history of education, but the new conception of life which they reveal and the new spirit and content which they give to education. This characteristic of Petrarch has a general significance also. As in its beginning so throughout its course, the Renaissance in Italy remained dominantly personal and individual. It did not seek to reform the morals of the times or to remove the formalism of the religious life and the narrowness of the political and institutional life. Individual ism a chief characteristic of the Italian Renaissance - aspects of and of his co Co-laborers of Petrarch. -Among the chief of these were Various edu Boccaccio (1313-1375), especially notable in literature, and cational Barzizza (1370-1431), especially notable for scholarship. the work of These, with Petrarch, led in the movement for the revival of Petrarch classical Latin, for the recovery of the classical text, for the laborers multiplication of these manuscripts, and for the founding of libraries. In one remaining aspect of the educational Renaissance the recovery of the Greek language - Petrarch had little part. In Hebrew the Italians had no interest, but to them was due the restoration of Greek. Even among the Byzantine Greeks of the East, a knowledge of the classical Greek was a rare thing. While many travelers and some students had come in contact with the contemporary Greeks and a few of the Byzantians in Italy professed to teach Greek, the first real teacher of the classical Greek in the Western world was Manuel Chrysoloras (d. 1415). From 1397 to 1400 Chrysoloras lectured at the University of Florence and later at other cities of Italy. Many flocked to his tuition; other Greek teachers followed his example; Greek manuscripts were brought over in great numbers; Greek grammars were written for Latin students. Shortly there was given to the Western world a new language and a whole literature, of infinitely greater wealth than that possessed, whether of classical Latin, of patristic and medieval Latin, or of the vernacular. the classical literature By the time the Renaissance movement had reached its Recovery of Zenith in Italy and had begun to pass north of the Alps, the classical Latin and Greek languages had been recovered. The largest part of the literature of these languages that we now possess had been brought to light, libraries had been founded and the new spirit as well as the new knowledge had been firmly established. MODIFIED CHARACTER OF THE RENAISSANCE IN Center of the sance in NORTH EUROPE. -The later Renaissance period, that of the later Renais latter half of the fifteenth century and the greater part of the north sixteenth, was modified in two respects. (1) By this time the Europe |