gland with the other tribes, while so many of the Angles came as to leave their country unpeopled. THE DANISH OR NORSE ELEMENT. § 27. As early as A.D. 787, the Northmen, including Norwegians, Danes, and Swedes, commenced their aggressions upon England. Of these three Scandinavian nations the Swedes took the least share, the Norwegians the greatest, in these invasions. The language of the three was the same, the differences being differences of dialect. The Danish that became incorporated with our language under the reign of Canute and his sons, may be called the Direct Danish element, in contradistinction to the Indirect Danish introduced through the Normans. After the reign of three Danish kings, occupying the space of twenty-six years, the crown returned to the line of Saxon kings in the person of Edward the Confessor. A few years back the current opinion was against the doctrine that there was much Danish in England. At present the tendency is the other way. Mr. Garnett, Phil. Trans. 1. The Saxon name of the Yorkshire, was Streoneshalch. Huitby, or the White Town, is The following facts are from present town of Whitby, in The present name, Whitby, Danish. 2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire was Northweortheg. The present name is Danish. 3. The termination -by=town, is Norse. 4. On a monument in Aldburgh Church, Holdernesse, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, referred to the age of Edward the Confessor, is found the following inscription: Ulf het araeran cyrice for hanum and for Gunthana saula. Now in this inscription Ulf, in opposition to the Anglo-Saxon Wulf, is a Norse form; while hanum is a Norse dative, and by no means an Anglo-Saxon one. Old Norse, hanum ; Swedish, honom. 5. The use of at for to, as the sign of the infinitive mode, is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the north 1 ern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present day. 6. The use of sum for as; e. g., swa sum, we forgive oure detturs. 7. Isolated words, in the Northern dialects, are Norse rather than Saxon. The Danish or Norse element of the Anglo-Norman, as in the proper names Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, constitutes the Indirect Scandinavian element of the English § 28. The Anglo-Norman or French element appears in our language with William the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings. Previous to that period there was more or less intercourse between the two countries. 1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer. 2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard, duke of Normandy, and the two children were sent to Normandy for their education. 3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have encouraged French manners and the French language in England, very much to the dissatisfaction of his subjects. 3. Ingulphus of Croydon, educated at Westminster, and secretary to William the Conqueror before he invaded England, speaks of his own knowledge of the French. 4. Harold passed some time in Normandy. 5. The French article la, in the term la drove, occurs in a deed of A.D. 975. The Norman-French was spoken from the Loire to the confines of Flanders. Its position can be understood from the following statement: The Latin language of the classical stock, at first confined to Central Italy, was afterward spoken more or less through the Roman empire. Out of the union of the Latin with the several other languages spoken in that empire grew six principal dialects which deserve to be called languages; two eastern, the Italian and Wallachian; two southern, the Spanish and Portuguese; and two northwestern, the French and the Provençal.-See President Woolsey's article on the Romanic Languages, New Englander, vol. v., no. 2. The Norman-French, spoken in the north of France, differed from the Provençal, spoken in the south, in the following circumstances: 1. It is of later origin. 2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany and Holland. There is also a second Gothic element, viz., a Scandinavian element. Until the time of the Scandinavians or Northmen, the present province of Normandy was called Nuestria. A generation before the Norman Conquest, a Norwegian captain, named in his own country Rolf, and in France Rollo, settled upon the coast of Normandy. What Hengist and the Germans were in Britain, Rollo and his Scandinavians were in France. The province took from them its name of Normandy. As a further proof that a Norwegian element was in the Norman-French, it should be stated, 1. That a Norse dialect was spoken in Normandy, at Boyeux, some time after the battle of Hastings. 2. That William the Conqueror understood the Norse language. 3. That the names of Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney are as truly Norse names as Orkney. The forthcoming specimens of ingredients from the Romanic languages, which have been introduced into our own, are from the article mentioned above. "Camminata, a room that can be warmed; Fr. cheminée, our chimney. Capanna, a hut. Hanc rustici capannam vocant,' says Isidore, 'quod unum tantum capiat.' It is our cabin. It is our cabin. Capulum, a rope, derived by Isidore from capio. It is our cable. Companium, company, from eating bread together. Discapelare, dishevel, from the Burgundian law. Exclusa, Fr. écluse, our sluice, found in the Salic law. Tornare, our turn, found in the Lombard law; a word of Greek origin which has superseded verto, verso in Romanic." The Anglo-Norman element is made up of ingredients from the Celtic, the classical, and the Gothic stock. In the year A.D. 1066, William, duke of Normandy, having landed an army of sixty thousand men in England, at the battle of Hastings, killed Harold the king, defeated his army, and thus put an end to the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. After he had ascended the throne, his followers were rewarded by the principal offices of trust in the kingdom, and by the estates of the nobility. The Norman-French, as a consequence, was spoken by the superior classes of society in England, from the Conquest to the time of Edward the Third, 1327, between two and three hundred years. The laws of the realm, the proceedings in Parliament, and in the courts of justice, were in the French language. Grammar-schoolboys were made to construe their Latin into French. In the statutes of Oriel College, Oxford, there is a regulation, so late as 1328, that the students shall converse together, if not in Latin, at least in French. Hence the English was seldom written till after the close of the fourteenth century. Sir John Mandeville's Travels, written in 1356, has been called the first English book. Wickliffe's translation of the Bible into English is referred to 1383. In 1350, John Cornwall, a schoolmaster, brought in so great an innovation as the making of his boys read Latin into English. By a statute in 1362, all pleas in courts of justice are directed to be pleaded and judged in English, on account of the French being so much unknown. CONDITION OF THE LANGUAGE BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. § 29. As to the language spoken before the coming of the Normans, Camden remarks: "Great, verily, was the glory of the English tongue before the Norman conquest, in this that the Old English could express most aptly all the conceits of the mind in their own tongue, without borrowing from any. For example, the holy service of God, which the Latins call religio, because it knitteth the minds of men together, they call ean fastness, as the one only assurance an D race. chor-hold of our soul's health. The certain inward knowledge of that which is in our own mind, be it good or bad, which with the Latin word we call conscience, they call inwit; as that which doth inwardly wit, that is, doth know certainly That which in a river is called channel, was called stream That which we call grandfather, they called eald fader. That which we called great-grandfather, they called third fader. The alteration in our tongue hath been brought about by the entrance of strangers, as Danes, Normans, and others which have swarmed hither; by traffick, for new words as well as new wares have always come in; by the tyrant Time, which altereth all things under heaven; by use, which swayeth most and hath an absolute command in words; and by pregnant wits it hath been beautified and enriched out of other good tongues, partly by refining and mollifying old words, and partly by implanting new words with artificial composition, so that our tongue was as copious as any other in Europe." Cases of certain changes from German to Norman-French are alluded to in the following terms in the Grammar of J. Wallis, p. 20: "Nec quidem temere contigisse puto, quod animalia viva, nominibus Germanicæ originis vocemus, quorum tamen carnem in cibum paratam, originis Gallicæ nominibus appellamus; puta, bovem, vaccam, vitulum, ovem, porcum, aprum, feram, etc.; an ox, a cow, a calf, a sheep, a hog, a boar, a deer, etc.; sed carnem bubulam, vitulinam, ovinam, porcinam, aprugnam, ferinam; beef, veal, mutton, pork, brawn, venison, etc.; sed hinc id ortum putaverim, quod Normanni milites pascuis, caulis, haris, locisque quibus vivorum animalium cura agebatur, parcius se immiscuerint (quæ itaque antiqua nomina retinuerunt); quam ma'cellis, culinis, mensis, epulis, ubi vel parabantur vel habebantur cibi, qui itaque nova nomina ab illis sunt adepti." "And I am of opinion that a tolerable reason can be given, why the names of those living creatures are originally German whose flesh, when prepared for food, we call by French names; as, for instance, an ox, a cow, a calf, a sheep, a hog, a boar, a deer, &c., are German names; but beef, veal, mutton, pork, brawn, venison, are French. The reason, then, I |