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PARTICIPLE.-An Adjective which can combine with a copula, so as to form, in one word, a predicate and copula, is called a Participle.

Now every quality or attribute implies one of two things. on the side of the subject. It implies either a state; as,

Grass is green, i. e., in a state of greenness; or else an action; as, Snow is falling, i. e., in the act of falling. The propositions may be taken negatively, Grass is not green; Snow is not falling. Furthermore, every name of an attribute or quality is an adjective.

But it has been seen, that although the copula and predicate are, in Logic, separate elements of the proposition, they may, in Grammar, coalesce. And it must further be remarked, that the tendency of the copula and predicate to coalesce is different for the two different kinds of qualities or attributes.

1. With predicates expressive of a state, the coalition is comparatively rare.

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2. With predicates expressive of an action, the coalition is well-nigh universal.

§ 401. VERBS.-A word capable of forming by itself both the predicate and copula of a Proposition is called a Verb.

The extent to which different languages separate or combine the predicate or copula is very great. We say, it (is) green; the Latin says, viret. In certain American dialects, the practice of combining the predicate and copula is so great as to leave few adjectives in the language. In the Cree, such predicates and copulas as is circular, is tall, is short, are expressed by single words. Hence the language has been said to be all verb, and no adjective.

The copula, as a separate element, uncombined with a predicate, has not yet been found to exist in any language; consequently, it has not yet been shown to constitute a separate part of speech.

Sometimes even the substantive-verb itself is both Copula and Predicate, namely, where existence alone is affirmed or denied; as, "God is." Here existing is the Predicate.

A verb is, in current language, a name for all simple words capable of expressing the existence or non-existence of a

state or of an action, and it signifies either to be something or to do something.

Nothing but a word of this kind can be at once predicate and copula. The predicate-element denotes the particular state or action; the copula-element, its existence or non-ex istence, or, to speak more generally, its applicability or nonapplicability to the subject.

The predicate-element of a verb may also be called the nominal-element, since all predicates are nouns, i.e., Substan tives or Adjectives.

§ 402. ARTICLES.-Certain words which serve as special signs of the Definitude or the Indefinitude of the subject of a proposition are called Articles. These words are a and the. 1. A man is mortal. 2. The man is mortal.

In the first proposition the subject is comparatively Indefinite; in the second it is Definite. They mark an object as definite or indefinite, but with less precision than the Demonstrative Pronoun or the Numeral.

If the could be used when this or that (the words with which it is etymologically connected) is used, it would be either an Adjective or Pronoun. If a could be used when one (the word with which it is etymologically connected) is used, it would be an Adjective.

§ 403. NEGATIVES. A word capable of converting an affirmative into a negative proposition is called a Negative. No man is mortal; The man is not mortal. Here no and not enter into the structure of a simple proposition, and change it from Affirmative to Negative.

$ 404. INTERROGATIVES.-A word which serves as a sign to denote that a proposition is stated in the form of a question is called an Interrogative. A question is reducible to an assertion. In the expression, What is this? its meaning is, "This is something concerning which I want information." The predicate is what.

PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH CAN ENTER ONLY INTO
COMPLEX PROPOSITIONS.

§ 405. ADVERBS.-A word which can not by itself form the constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can,

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in combination with Verbs or Adjectives, form a part of a
complex proposition, is called an Adverb.
"John spoke
loudly." "She is excessively timid." Words that can take the
place of loudly or of excessively in a proposition are adverbs.
As the copula is essentially simple, whatever complexity
occurs in propositions occurs in the terms. Whenever it is a
verb by which complexity is given to a proposition, it is done
on the strength of its predicate-element exclusively. Accord-
ing to this view, the adverb combines with an Adjective
upon the same ground upon which it combines with a Verb.
§ 406. PREPOSITIONS.-A word which can not by itself
form a constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can
enter into a complex term to express some relation, is a
Preposition.

When a word originally a preposition connects with a verb, and simply indicates the manner in which an action takes place, it has become converted from a preposition into an adverb.

PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH DO NOT ENTER INTO THE
STRUCTURE OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 407. CONJUNCTIONS.-A word which connects two propositions, without entering into the construction of either, is called a Conjunction. "The day is bright, because the sun is shining."

A conjunction is a word denoting the relation which one proposition bears to another. Some words used as Conjunctions are sometimes also used as Prepositions. All fled but he. Here the word but is a conjunction, and the propositions are two in number: 1. All fled; 2. but he did not fly. All fled but him. Here the word but is a preposition, meaning except, and the proposition is single.

§ 408. INTERJECTIONS.-A word which can not enter into any proposition, or connect two propositions, but simply expresses surprise or any emotion, is called an Interjection. They have a meaning, but not a meaning dependent on assertion.

EXERCISES.

1. In two different propositions use the same word (i. e., the same in form) as a Substantive and a Verb.

2. In two different propositions use the same word as a Pronoun and a Conjunction.

3. In two different propositions use the same word as an Adjective and an Adverb.

4. In two different propositions use the same word as an Adverb and a Preposition.

5. In two different propositions use the same word as a Conjunction and a Preposition.

6. In two different propositions use the same word as a Conjunction and an Adverb.

7. In three different propositions use the same word as a Substantive or Adjective, and a Verb (stone).

8. In two different propositions express different degrees of definitude by the articles.

9. Change two affirmative propositions into two negative ones by using different negatives.

10. Change two propositions into two questions, and mention which are their predicates.

LOGICAL AND

GRAMMATICAL ELEMENTS

OF A PROP

OSITION.

§ 409. The Logical elements of a Proposition have been examined. With these the grammatical elements may or may not coincide; in fact, they rarely do altogether. The most important difference takes place in one of the four fol lowing ways:

I. The Grammatical expression may be more compendious than the Logical one. In this way we get the copula and predicate combined in a single word; or (changing the expression), a verb instead of a participle and copula for grammatical purposes, fire burns=fire is burning.

II. Grammar may express not only the logical elements of a proposition, but something besides them. Thus, the signs of gender and number expressed in the declension of nouns, and the signs of time expressed in the tenses of verbs, are extra-logical elements of propositions.

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III. Grammar may employ certain forms for the sake of showing the relationship that certain words bear to each other, independent of any idea of substitution. The sign of the nominative case, where it exists, exists as a mark of distinction, not as the equivalent of any of the logical elements of a proposition. This is not the case with the -o in voco= I call. The -o in voco stands as the representative of the subjeet I, and as its substitute. Where an inflection stands as the equivalent of a logical element, the practice of Grammar and the forms of Logic differ in degree only, not in kind.

IV. Excess of Expression.-In the word callest, the -est is the sign of the second person. As such it is an equivalent to the personal pronoun thou, the logical subject. Nevertheless, we say not simply call-est, but thou call-est, so using both pronoun and the substitute at the same time. This is an instance of what may be called excess of expression.

Some of the previous remarks show that some inflections are more closely connected with the structure of propositions than others. The signs of mood are more a matter of logic than the signs of gender. The only inflections that, in so short a treatise as the present, require particular notice are, a. The persons of verbs. b. Certain cases.

THE PERSONS OF VERBS.

§ 410. An inflection that expresses a subject is called a Person. In the Latin language, the combination v o c means call. In the same language,

Voc-o
Voc-as

=

I call.

thou call-est.

Voc-at = He call-s.

Voc-amus = We call.
Voc-atis

= ye call.
Voc-ant =They call.

In all these examples the terminations -o, -as, -at, etc., serve instead of the pronouns I, thou, he, etc., which are not necessary to the construction. This inflection is pre-eminently logical, inasmuch as the grammatical element -o, etc., stands as an equivalent to the logical element called the subject.

CERTAIN OBLIQUE CASES.

§ 411. Modifications in the form of a noun, that are equiv

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