The facts are as follows. Even newborn snakes can open their mouths wide enough to bite a man's finger and the theory that a grown coral snake can not bite a man is a priori ridiculous, even setting aside recorded instances of their so doing. Willson (Archives Int. Med., 1908, 1, p. 516) has collected records of 740 cases of snake bite in the United States. The harmless coral snake, unable to bite a human being, actually bit eight human beings, of whom six died, making a mortality of 75 per cent., as against 408 cases of rattlesnake bite, of whom =forty-eight died, a mortality of under 12 per cent. The coral snake is therefore over six times as deadly as a rattlesnake, and, while they seldom bite people on account of small size and secretive nature, yet they are potentially the most deadly animals in the Americas.

SMITH COLLEGE

E. R. DUNN

SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

Anatomy and Physiology of the Honeybee. By R. E. SNODGRASS, Bureau of Entomology, first edition, xvi +326 pp., 109 figs. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1925.

IN 1910 Snodgrass prepared for the Bureau of Entomology a bulletin (Tech. ser. 18, 162 pp., 57 figs.) entitled "The anatomy of the honeybee." The edition of this bulletin was limited by the restrictions unfortunately placed on certain departmental publications solely because of their size, and the supply was soon exhausted. Since that time there has been a limited but constant demand for copies of this bulletin, which could not be supplied, and finally the author was induced to rewrite and enlarge the portion on anatomy, to include the results of the more recent investigations on the functions of the various organs and to issue the result in book form. The present work is the result. While it is designated a first edition, it is actually an outgrowth and enlargement of the earlier bulletin.

In this book the number of figures is doubled and the text is approximately twice the size of that of the bulletin. Most of the figures formerly used, many of which contain several drawings, have been retained and many new and original drawings now appear. An extensive bibliography is appended, listing especially the more important papers in this field published within the past decade, but noticeably omitting some older works which have served to confuse rather than to advance our knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the honeybee. Developmental stages are included, based chiefly on the work of Nelson, who worked in the same laboratory. Other investigations

of the bee culture laboratory of the bureau form an important part of the new material.

Morphology is no longer a phase of biological investigation to which most workers are attracted, yet it will be admitted that a sound knowledge of structure is essential as a foundation to satisfactory and reliable work in physiology and behavior. The author of this book has rendered a real service in presenting a comprehensive and thoroughly dependable manual of honeybee anatomy. The anatomy of almost no other animal aside from man himself has been the subject of more books and papers than has that of the honeybee, yet unfortunately many and perhaps most of the previous authors in this field have lacked a knowledge of comparative anatomy of insects and as a result have in too many cases given fanciful interpretations and incongruous names to the things recorded as observed. It is therefore a pleasure to welcome a book which does scientific justice to its subject and which is based on a well-grounded knowledge of comparative anatomy. This method of approach, as the author points out, "makes acquaintance with the bee in the end not only easier but more interesting, since to a knowledge of facts it adds understanding."

In this book, however, the bee is a living thing. The short life of the honeybee and its specialized colonial life make physiological experimentation difficult, so that a considerable amount of our knowledge of its physiological processes have been derived by deduction from studies of morphology and by analogy from studies of allied species. The physiological processes of insects have in too many cases not been thoroughly investigated, but in so far as this has been done for the honeybee and allied species, the author has included a comprehensive account of the investigations of others and has included certain new investigations of his own. His work on the so-called fat body is especially interesting. Most of the physiological work mentioned has been done within the past decade. In so far as investigations would warrant, there is a discussion of the cytology of parthenogenesis and inheritance in the honeybee. The work on the structure and functions of the sense organs is especially well done, and the author has corrected certain errors in morphology which have appeared in earlier work on these organs. Various phases of the behavior of the bee are discussed, where the behavior centers about certain organs, although a discussion of bee behavior is not part of the plan of the book. It is needless to itemize the various subjects discussed aside from stating that they are just what one expects in a book with this title.

The important facts to record concerning this book pertain primarily to the qualifications of the author

for an undertaking of this character, since he combines several abilities which especially fit him for such a task. He is undoubtedly the most skilled artist who devotes his artistic abilities to insect morphology. He has had wide experience in morphological investigations and possesses a broad knowledge of the comparative anatomy of insects, and as an insect morphologist has no superior. He also possesses a rare ability to write in an attractive style, one which holds his readers to an unusual degree. To possess artistic skill, knowledge of comparative anatomy and a facility in the use of one's own language is indeed a rare combination, and because of these qualifications the author has presented a book which no student of insects can neglect and one which raises the standards of work in insect morphology and physiology.

To those especially interested in the honeybee, this book is a treasure, for it will serve as a starting point for much future work in bee behavior and physiology, as well as in practical beekeeping. It gives under one cover a fund of scientific knowledge of this most interesting but too often misrepresented insect and will help to dim the luster of the pseudo-scientists who have so long encumbered bee literature with their speculations. From all these different points of view, this is a notable book which deserves hearty commendation.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

E. F. PHILLIPS

SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS AND

LABORATORY METHODS

AN INEXPENSIVE AIR PRESSURE INJECTION APPARATUS

AIR pressure apparatus for embalming and injecting has many advantages over that depending on gravity, but most biological laboratories are not equipped with compressed air and electrically operated systems are expensive to install. The equipment described here is only a simple adaptation of a contrivance common in chemical laboratories, but several months' use in preparing a wide variety of dissection material has convinced the writer of its utility. Furthermore, it is very inexpensive.

The air pump is a common filter pump, g, fig. 1, whose outlet is passed through the stopper of an aspirator bottle, A, of four liters capacity or greater. Air and water are discharged together into the bottle. The water escapes through the lower outlet, while the air is led through bottle B to C, which contains the liquid to be injected.

To operate: Open pinchcocks a, c and d and close

b, e and f. Turn on the water. Partially closed and so adjust it that the desired pressure is maintained, with air and water escaping through d. The flow of liquid through the canula is then controlled at f. Always open d to release the pressure before turning off the water.

To fill C with injection fluid: Close a and c, open b and turn on the water. This will reduce the pressure in C and it can then be filled through the tube which holds the canula without the necessity of moving the bottle or of pouring the liquid through a funnel.

The bottle, B, is necessary unless A is quite large, because A will sometimes fill up with water and B then helps to keep it out of the air tubes and out of C. If A is large, B can be replaced by a T-tube and the manometer inserted at any convenient point. The manometer is necessary in order that the operator may always know and control the pressure with which he is working. The type shown, with the outer end sealed, will give the least trouble. Stoppers must be wired in and the ends of glass tubing should be beaded to hold the rubber tubing securely.

The apparatus as shown should not cost over fifteen dollars. If aspirator bottles are not available, a tube inserted through the stopper nearly to the bottom will serve for the lower outlet. Some manufacturers supply as a unit, made of metal, the equivalent of the filter pump and bottle A with the inlets and outlets fitted with stopcocks. This is listed as blast apparatus or filter pump apparatus, Muesche.

The outfit used by the writer consists of one of these units, a one liter wide-mouth bottle (B), and (C) two carboys and two four-liter bottles. The carboys were set outside the window in the light well and are never touched since they can be filled from the work table. The two bottles have long air tubes and can be moved about. They are used for small quan

tities of fluid and for starch mass which must be prevented from setting. This equipment, with the moderate water pressure available, will develop an air pressure of ten pounds, though two to five are all that are usually needed. It will deliver one liter of air per minute at five pounds pressure and over four liters at atmospheric pressure. It will maintain an even pressure without attention unless the air is suddenly released or the water pressure varies. This apparatus, in comparison with the gravity apparatus formerly used, saves time and necessitates less handling of unpleasant fluids and less moving of heavy

bottles.

The same equipment can also be used for operating a small blast burner, for stirring with air, for aerating aquaria, etc. It is especially useful for salt water aquaria where running sea water is not available. Fresh air may be secured from out of doors by running a tube to the pump from any desired point, and the air delivered to the aquarium is washed, cooled and moistened. The writer has aerated fourteen aquaria at one time with one pump. The tube to each aquarium must be provided with a clamp to regulate the flow of air and to maintain some pressure in the system. Especial care must be taken that water from the pump does not get through the air line into the aquaria.

REED COLLEGE

EDGAR L. LAZIER

3

a low temperature of say, 300° C. The oxidized magnetite is ferric oxide of the composition Fe2O, but it retains the ferro-magnetic properties of the magnetite Fe3O4, with which we started, and it retains also the original cubic crystal structure. If, now, the oxidized magnetite, which is completely oxidized to Fe2O, is heated to 550° C. or more, it loses its ferro-magnetic properties, and the crystal unit takes on the rhombohedral form usually found in hematite, Fe2O3. This transformation of oxidized magnetite into hematite is non-reversible, for the oxide remains permanently non-magnetic and the structure does not change back to cubic when the oxide cools. These physical properties of the magnetite with which we begin, of the oxidized magnetite, and of the hematite are compared in the first three rows of Table I.

SPECIAL ARTICLES

CERTAIN OXIDES OF IRON IN SOME NEW

CATALYTIC ACTIONS1

IN current numbers of the Philosophical Magazine and the Journal of Biological Chemistry detailed accounts of our work with synthetic iron oxides and their use in catalyzing certain reactions of biological interest will be presented. The results appear to be of sufficient general interest to justify a brief description in this journal.

The oxide with which we start is the magnetite which is formed when a solution containing one mol of ferrous sulphate and two mols of ferric sulphate is poured into a boiling solution of sodium hydroxide of sufficient strength to remain alkaline after the addition of the sulphates. The black, micro-crystalline precipitate is washed to remove the sulphate, and it is then filtered off and dried. Two distinct ferric oxides can be derived from this magnetite. One, which we call "oxidized magnetite," is obtained by oxidation of the magnetite in a stream of oxygen at

1 From the Laboratories of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York.

per cent.

Blood test.

dation of benzidine by H.O, in presence of Growth of B. lepisepticum in broth and in presence of

Absorption

o f

of iron is not dependent on the presence of ferrous iron.

39

Each of these three oxides have been submitted to two tests of a catalytic nature. One is the well-known benzidine test for blood. Both the magnetite and the oxidized magnetite, which we will hereafter call "active Fe2O," gave positive benzidine tests, just as if we had used blood instead of the oxides as a catalyzer. When the test was made with the hematite, "inactive Fe,O," the result was absolutely negative. The other test we used was that of promoting the growth of Bacterium lepisepticum.2 Under aerobic conditions this organism does not thrive and soon loses its virulence if one attempts to grow it in broth alone. But it thrives and remains virulent if grown in broth plus a small quantity of blood. The organism will also thrive and remain virulent when a small quantity of magnetite or of oxidized magnetite (active Fe,0 ̧) is added to the broth culture. However, when the organism is seeded in a culture of broth plus hematite (inactive Fe2O) it does not thrive and it becomes non-virulent just as if broth alone were used. In these tests with bacteria we usually employed 100 milligrams of oxide per cubic centimeter of broth.

The fact that Bacterium lepisepticum requires the presence of a suitable substance in addition to the broth, if growth is to take place under aerobic conditions, whereas growth takes place in broth alone under anaerobic conditions, suggests that the function of the blood or of the oxides is to absorb oxygen, and thus bring about the equivalent of anaerobic conditions. The oxygen absorption of each of the three oxides, when covered with broth, was therefore measured. The results are shown in the table.

It is not the purpose of this paper to consider the question of whether the function of the active oxides is that of creating anaerobic conditions in the broth, or whether we are dealing with some other chemical phenomenon which is associated with the absorption of oxygen. The object is to bring out the fact that the activity or inactivity of Fe2O, as a catalyzer is dependent on its crystal structure. Likewise, the property of ferro-magnetism is closely connected with the structure, as it may be present or absent in oxides of identical composition according as the crystal unit is cubic or rhombohedral.

3

The questions may now be asked: Are these true phenomena of catalysis? Does anything happen to the oxide when it is used to promote the benzidine reaction or to promote the growth of Bacterium lepisepticum? There seems to be no chance of any chemical change in the active Fe2O, which is already completely oxidized. But we meet with one extremely

2 The bacteriological work was done by Dr. L. T. Webster.

tempting and attractive possibility when we consider the relative lattice energies of the crystals of active and of inactive Fe2O.. Crystals of the former are evidently less stable than those of the latter, since the transformation which can take place at a high temperature is non-reversible. The possibility before us is that the transformation of active FeО into inactive Fe2O, can, in some way, take place during the catalysis, and that the difference in the lattice energy becomes available for the activation of the atoms or molecules taking part in the reactions.

3

3

The hypothesis can be tested in two ways. We may examine the X-ray diffraction pattern given by active Fe2O3, after it has been used as a catalyzer, for lines which are given by inactive Fe2O. A more sensitive test would be to look for a decrease in the ferro-magnetism which is known to disappear when active Fe2O becomes inactive. We have done this, with negative results, as shown in Table II. In the case of the benzidine reaction it was necessary to take account of the products of the reaction which formed a coating on the

ORGANIZATION OF CHEMISTS IN

THE UNITED STATES1

IN consultation with fellows of the institute who have solicited this address, I find an expectation that, since I have chanced to be associated with the beginnings of several of these organizations and participated at several of the critical stages in their development, I shall be somewhat reminiscent and the address more or less of the nature of a narrative. However, the topic assigned me covers a period much antecedent to my appearance in my present state of existence, but fortunately this field was carefully and completely covered by Dr. H. Carrington Bolton, noted historian and bibliographer of chemistry, lecturer on the history of chemistry at the George Washington University during the last decade of the nineteenth century, and, who, besides his monumental works on chemical bibliography, was author of that graphic story of alchemy and the alchemists, entitled, "The Follies of Science at the Court of Rudolph II." Bolton presented the results of his researches at a meeting of the Washington Chemical Society on April 6, 1897, under the title, "Early American chemical societies," while at the 25th anniversary meeting of the American Society, he dealt with the "Chemical societies of the nineteenth century," and thus supplied material for comparisons as to date of formation, rate of development, and the like, between domestic and foreign societies. In his first paper, Dr. Bolton records three societies, viz., the Chemical Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1792; the Columbian Chemical Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1811, and the Delaware Chemical and Geological Society, organized at Delhi, Delaware County, New York, September 6, 1821. The information Dr. Bolton was able to collect regarding these organizations was meager and his paper consists largely of brief biographical notes of members, showing chiefly that, at the time, such chemical activity and interest in chemistry as existed was largely confined to the medical profession. In conning these names, one notes that several of the more active of the members, like Dr. Robert Hare and Professor James Cutbush, have

1 Address delivered April 6, 1925, at the annual banquet of the American Institute of Chemists.

2 J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. 19, pp. 719–732 (1897).

8 Report of the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the American Chemical Society, April 12 and 13, 1901. Supplement to J. Am. Chem. Soc., pp. 21-35 (1902). This list has been brought down to 1924, by E. Emmet Reid, on pp. 73-77 of his "Introduction to Organic Research.'