use. Hard as this might seem, Friday would have accepted the offer-profiting by Crusoe's capital, though paying dearly for its Reflection, however, would have led him soon to see, that if he could become himself owner of a boat, he could retain the entire product thus obtaining, in exchange for three hours' labor, the food for which he now gave twelve. Stimulated by this idea, and desirous of utilizing the time and force already economised, he next makes terms with Crusoe for the use of his knife- in process of time becoming, by its aid, possessor of a boat. Both being now capitalists, their conditions would have much approximated-notwithstanding the advances that Crusoe might, himself, have made. At first, his wealth stood at 10, while that of Friday, was at 0. The former has now reached 40, but the latter has attained to 5 or 10. Tendency towards equality is, thus, a natural consequence of that growth of wealth, by means of which man is enabled to substitute mental for merely physical force. Every increase in his power over nature is but the preparation for further and greater motion in the same direction—the forces which had opposed his progress becoming gradually centred in himself, and aiding in the subjection of others, whose power being greater, more strenuously resist his efforts. Therefore it is, that here, as everywhere, it is the first step that is most costly, yet least productive. Look where we may, we see man passing from the weaker towards the more powerful instruments of production the poor settler gladly using wood-coal in the production of iron, although surrounded by mineral coal capable of performing thrice the service, in return for half the labor. The more the capability of rendering service, the greater is the resistance to be overcome, whether we desire to command the services of men, or things, in which that power resides. The laws of nature are thus, as we see, of universal truth being equally applicable to man and to the forces given by the Creator for his use. § 2. The bow having brought with it power over nature, its next effect is found in increase of Friday's power to direct himself. Having leisure, he devotes it to the construction of a canoe -by help of which he obtains further leisure. Giving this to the making of a knife and sail, all next combine for giving him power to be applied to the construction of a house - the quantity of labor required for reproducing existing capital, and further extending the quantity of capital, diminishing with every stage of progress. Past accumulations tend steadily to decline in value labor rising not less steadily when compared with them. The first stone-knife was the fruit of far more effort than was afterwards required for making one of bronze-the latter proving, however, a far more efficient instrument. The stone-axe ceases now to have any value whatsoever; and yet, in the earlier periods, its services had been held as equal to threefourths of those of the man who used it. The axe of iron and steel now coming into use, and proving still more efficient, the bronze axe, in turn, declines in value. The more useful instrument being obtained, too, in return for far less effort than had before been given for the inferior one-the decline in the value of earlier ones is thus again increased. Mind having obtained command over matter, the great natural forces become centred in man, who now discards the earlier instruments-preserving specimens, only as curious evidences of the inferiority of his predecessors, who had wrought with their hands alone. Measuring himself against his products and his instruments, man attributes to himself every increase of utility in the materials by which he is surrounded. The greater that utility, the higher is his own value, and the less that of the things he needs. The cost of reproduction steadily declining, he himself as steadily rises — every reduction in the value of existing capital being so much added to the value of the MAN. § 3. Little as was the work that could be done with the help of an axe of stone, its service to the owner had been very great. It was, therefore, clear to him, that the man to whom he lent it should pay him largely for its use. He could, too, as we readily see, well afford to do so. Cutting, with it, more wood in a day than, without it, he could cut in a month, he would profit by its help, were he allowed but a tenth of his labor's products. Being permitted to retain a fourth, he finds his wages much increased, notwithstanding the large proportion claimed, as profit, by his neighbor capitalist. The bronze-axe being next obtained, and proving far more useful, its owner-being asked to grant its use-is now, however, required to recollect, that not only had the productiveness of labor greatly increased, but the quantity required to be given to the production of an axe had also greatly decreased — capital thus declining in its power over labor, as labor increased in its power for the reproduction of capital. He, therefore, limits himself to demanding two-thirds of the price of the more potent instrument saying to the wood-cutter: "You can do twice as much work with this, as you now do with our neighbor's stoneaxe; and if I permit you to retain a third of the wood that is cut, your wages will still be doubled." This arrangement being made, the comparative effects of the earlier and later distributions are as follows: The reward of labor has more than doubled, as a consequence of the receipt of an increased proportion of an increased quantity. The capitalist's share has not quite doubled-he receiving a diminished proportion of the same increased quantity. The position of the laborer, which had, at first, stood as only one to three, is now as one to two; with great increase of power to accumulate, and thus to become himself a capitalist. With the substitution of mental for merely physical power, the tendency to equality becomes more and more developed. The axe of iron next coming, a new distribution is required— the cost of reproduction having again diminished, while labor has again increased in its proportions, as compared with capital. The new instrument cuts twice as much as had been cut by the one of bronze; and yet its owner finds himself compelled to be content with claiming half the product the following figures now presenting a comparative view of the several modes of distribution: Total. 4 8 Laborer. Capitalist. 8 The axe of iron and steel now coming, the product is again doubled, with further diminution in the cost of reproduction; and now the capitalist is obliged to content himself with a less proportion-the distribution being as follows: Fourth.......... 32 : The laborer's share has increased; and the total product having largely increased - the augmentation of his quantity is very great. That of the capitalist has diminished in proportion; but the product having so much increased. this reduction of proportion has been accompanied by a large increase of quantity. Both thus profit greatly by the improvements that have been effected. With every further movement in the same direction, the same results continue to be obtained the proportion of the laborer increasing with every increase in the productiveness of effort the proportion of the capitalist as steadily diminishing, with constant increase of quantity, and equally constant tendency towards equality among the various portions of which society is composed. The more rapid the progress, the greater is the tendency of mind to acquire power over matterthe value of man rising as compared with capital, and that of capital declining as compared with man. In the natural course of things, the laborers of the present tend, therefore, to acquire power at the cost of the accumulations of the past—that tendency existing, everywhere, in the direct ratio of the rapidity of the circulation, and consequent growth of the power of accumulation. Such is the great law governing the distribution of labor's products. Of all recorded in the book of science, it is perhaps the most beautiful-being, as it is, that one, in virtue of which there is established a perfect harmony of real and true interests among the various classes of mankind. Still further, it establishes the fact, that, however great may have been the oppressions of the many at the hands of the few. - however large the accumulations resulting from the exercise of the power of appropriation-however striking the existing distinctions among menall that is required for establishing, everywhere, perfect equality before the law, and for promoting equality in social condition generally, is the pursuit of a system tending to establish in the highest degree the power of association and the development of individuality that system being found in the observance of VOL. III.-8 perfect respect for the rights of others- thus securing the maintenance of peace, and promoting the growth of wealth and population, both abroad and at home. The more rapid the increase of man's control over nature, the greater must be the tendency towards the establishment of power to direct himself— wealth and power travelling, thus, together. § 4. That the law here given, as regards the return to capital invested in axes, is equally true in reference to all other descriptions of capital, will be obvious to the reader upon slight reflection. The house in which he lives, long since produced, cost much more labor than, with the help of the planing, brickmaking, and various other labor-saving instruments, would now be required for producing one much superior, both in appearance and convenience; and, with that change, there has been so great a decline in the value of previously existing houses, that it might not exchange for half the labor it had cost. Being asked to pay a rent for it, he would not now be willing to give more than half as much as had at first been paid; and yet, by reason of his increased power over nature, his own physical, or mental, powers would command twice the compensation that had, before, been willingly accepted. This decline in the value of old houses, is constantly being proved by the fact, that they are being everywhere condemned as wholly worthless, and no longer worthy to cumber the ground. So, too, with money. Brutus charged almost fifty per cent. interest for its use; and, in the days of Henry VIII., the proportion allotted by law to the lender was ten. Since then, it has steadily declined -four per cent. having become so much the established rate, in England, that property is uniformly estimated at twenty-five years' purchase of the rent; so large, nevertheless, having been the increase in the powers of man, that the present receiver of a twenty-fifth can command an amount of convenience, and of comfort, twice greater than could have been obtained by his predecessors who received a tenth. In this decline in the proportion charged for the use of capital, we find the highest proof of man's improved condition. It is evidence that the labors of the present are becoming daily more productive — that the value of all commodities, as measured by labor, is steadily |