tion in the ultramicroscopic field might quite properly be called free. The question of what physical meaning could be assigned to the term freedom would then arise. Briefly, an internal or individual rather than an external determination would seem to be the essential character implied.

The distinction we are emphasizing is essentially that between the conditions determining macroscopic processes, which according to Maxwell and Boltzmann are determined statistically, and those determining single ultramicroscopic events where individual determination prevails. A smoothing-off or obliteration of inner detail is inevitable in effects controlled by mass action, which as observed represent the sum or integration of numerous fluctuating minutiæ. The relation between a smoothed curve and the distribution of the points showing the individual data is a relation of a similar kind. The inner processes which acting as an assemblage or collectively produce a certain mechanical or other effect might, individually considered, be free. Compare the analogous case of the curves representing the frequency distributions of human voluntary acts like suicide; predictions made on the basis of such curves are reliable if the number of individual cases is sufficient, and the behavior of such a population might seem mechanically determined. 6a For an essentially similar reason physical determination in the macroscopic realm appears unequivocal and freedom entirely absent. If, however, we consider a system in which single individually determined or "free" ultramicroscopic events-whether Brownian movements, quantum phenomena or something still more ultimate are in some way enabled to control effectively the macroscopic events in the system, the latter would also appear (to that degree) to be externally uncontrolled or free.

It seems highly probable that the conditions in living organisms are actually of this type. Evidently an inner control of the kind imagined would be possible only in a system with highly developed transmissive properties. The living organism is, however, just such a system. Experimentally it is easy to show that an event of microscopic extent and duration, e.g., a properly localized electric shock or a pinprick, may determine the activity of the whole system. Consider also the relation between the retinal processes and the activities which they control. Such large physiological effects depend, as just indicated, upon the peculiar type of transmission characteristic of living matter-spreading of chemical influence. associated with amplification. The degree of the

6a I.e., to an observer whose scale of perception did not permit discrimination of inner detail.

spreading and of the resulting amplification (whiel may be intensive as well as extensive) is limited only by the distribution of the tracts or surfaces over which the spreading can take place and by the nature of th physiological mechanisms which are thus activated In higher animals and man these transmitting tract are represented mainly by the minute and extensiv ramifications of the nervous system, which contro muscular and other action. In the single nervous ele ment or cell the transmissive process appears to con sist essentially in a chemical and structural alters tion of the interfacial films at the protoplasmic phase boundaries. Transmission of chemical influence t a distance by means of the local electrical effect resulting from the alteration of interfacial films well known in inorganic chemistry-the case of pa sive iron and similar systems—and shows many clos analogies with protoplasmic transmission. Incider tally it may be pointed out, as a special conditio favoring indetermination (independence of mass a tion) in systems having this type of transmission that these films may be monomolecular in thickness the local ultramicroscopic surface-area where th activity is initiated thus contains fewer molecul than would be the case if the molecules were di tributed in three dimensions, and the chance that single large fluctuation may become effective is co respondingly increased.

It is important to note that the transmissive proce itself (e.g., nerve impulse), being on a relatively lar scale, belongs in the class of phenomena dealt wi by classical physical chemistry. Hence it is limite in its possible range of variation by thermodynam conditions of the usual kind; correspondingly it unequivocally regular or determined in its physic character. It is clear that the chain of process intervening between the physically undetermin initiatory event and the large-scale organic acti must themselves be rigidly determined in charact and interconnection, otherwise any precise or regul control would not be possible. In fact, volunta control is precise to a remarkable degree as all a of skill testify-limited only by the physical capabi ties of the organism.

An example from the inorganic field, showing h large external effects may be without assignable e ternal causes, may illustrate perhaps more clear the general nature of the conditions. Every now a then an unexplained explosion occurs in stores high explosives. We know from observation Brownian movement, as well as from theoretical e

7 Cf. my recent volume, "Protoplasmic Action a Nervous Action," University of Chicago Press, 1923, f an account of this type of transmission.

siderations of probability, that at infrequent intervals an internal molecular or particulate movement of unusual amplitude occurs. Such a movement may exceed the critical minimum below which no chemical reaction results; but if such a reaction should take place locally the whole mass would be ignited by transmission of the explosive type. Explosions due to purely spontaneous activity are thus to be expected in large masses of explosive at intervals; such intervals may be calculable, and the matter might well be tested experimentally, using known volumes of mechanically sensitive explosive kept at appropriate temperatures. A local mechanical shock will set off such a mass, and conceivably an internal particulate movement of large amplitude might have the same effect. The spontaneous activation which ecurs in passive iron wires kept in dilute nitric acid -with a frequency increasing with dilution, size of vire and temperature is an example of a similar ondition, also suitable for statistical investigation. In the living organism the microscopically visible tructure shows a definite correspondence with the equirements of the present view. In broad outine we seem to perceive the character of the nexus hrough which submicroscopic events are enabled to ontrol microscopic and ultimately macroscopic events. t is clear from general considerations that a heteroeneous system such as protoplasm is favorable to a entralized type of control of the kind indicated." xperimental studies lead to a similar conclusion. fodern genetics indicates that submicroscopic parcles (genes) determine the special details of inheriince; 10 in an analogous manner minute local stimuli etermine the activation of extensive physiological echanisms, and minute areas of active growth deterine the form adopted by the growing embryo. Just 3 submicroscopic events thus determine microscopic rents, so behind or internal to the submicroscopic ents we must assume a series of ultramicroscopic rents reaching back by convergence into the field here the known types of physical determination e replaced by another type of determination, the ecial conditions of which we do not know. ApparFor a discussion of the chances of appreciable meanical effects resulting from Brownian movement, cf. e recent book of Professor G. N. Lewis, "Anatomy of dence," Yale University Press, 1926, p. 145. Incintally the case of levitation comes in for consideration. Cf. the discussion in Guye's "Physico-chemical Evotion," p. 136.

20 Freundlich has considered the possibility that flucations in the Brownian movement of the genes may at the basis of mutations: Naturwissenschaften, 1919, 1. 7, p. 832.

ently, however, this type contains possibilities of a kind entirely different from those with which we are familiar from our experience of large-scale phenomena. In this field events occur which appear to be free, i.e., internally rather than externally determined, although we can as yet give no scientific account of the conditions of such determination.

We may now briefly consider the question: how are we to conceive the conditions of action in the remote ultramicroscopic field where physical determination, as hitherto understood, seems to fail? This field, beyond the range of the classical or deterministic physics, is now, thanks to the methods of the new physics, open (in part) to experimental investigation. One may therefore hesitate to call it the ultraphysical field-still less the metaphysical. Probably it can be characterized satisfactorily only on the basis of future research. It would seem, however, that there must be some final support or substratum of the physical to which only the term metaphysical can be applied. The question becomes: is action in this field free? and if so what is meant or implied by the term? Two possibilities suggest themselves. If by free we mean externally uncontrolled, it would appear that the ultimate local centers or units of action should be independent of one another: i.e., a radical discontinuity should exist at the basis of physical reality. Something of the kind seems to be indicated by quantum phenomena. There is also the general philosophical position that the universe, considered in its totality, must be the expression of free action, since an all-inclusive whole can not be determined externally, i.e., by conditions outside itself. How otherwise are we to account for its having the special and arbitrary character which it actually does have, instead of any other one of the infinity of possible alternative characters? Claude Bernard, indeed, while working actively in experimental physiology, referred the ultimate vital determination to the metaphysical world. In this world, he considered, freedom was possible, although in experimental biology he insisted on a rigid determinism.11 What is significant is that in both of the possibilities just considered an ultimate determination other than physical is implied, but without infringing the usual types of physical determination.

It may be objected that (e.g.) intra-atomic phenomena are not undetermined, but are determined according to laws which are still physical laws, however different they may be from those prevailing in the macroscopic or mechanical sphere. The stability

11 Cf. the recent English translation of Bernard's book on "Experimental Medicine," Macmillan Co., New York, 1927.

of an atomic system in itself implies strict determinism. Our amended conclusion therefore would be that events are determined, in the sense of being subject to law, in the ultra-mechanical as well as the mechanical world, but that the conditions of this determination are fundamentally different. The term "physical indeterminism" might by some be regarded as a misnomer. We seem, however, to have reached a stage in scientific development where physical terms are acquiring unexpected meanings; the present contention would simply be that the older physical conceptions of determinism may not prove applicable to the new range of phenomena, and that the experimental facts themselves may oblige us to admit the existence of determining factors indistinguishable in essence from those which formerly we called free. This, however, is not a philosophical but a scientific paper; and my present aim is simply to indicate an objectively valid source of determination for certain fundamental vital phenomena which hitherto have proved refractory to analysis.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, JUNE, 1927

RALPH S. LILLIE

HENRY PAUL TALBOT

THE death of Dean Henry Paul Talbot deprives the institute of the services of one of its most cherished alumni, one who devoted his life in a noteworthily unselfish way to the upbuilding of his Alma Mater. For forty years he gave the best of his brain and heart to the development of teaching and administration and to the advancement of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a great school of engineering and science.

Dr. Talbot graduated at the institute in 1885 and received the degree of doctor of philosophy from the University of Leipzig in 1890. He returned to the institute as an instructor and was rapidly promoted through the several grades and was finally appointed professor of analytical chemistry in 1898. He showed marked administrative ability and from 1895 was nominally in charge of the department of chemistry, although his official appointment to this post was not. made until 1901. He served as chairman of the faculty from 1919 to 1921, as chairman of the administrative committee from 1920 to 1923 and as dean of students from 1921.

Dr. Talbot's training in chemistry was broad: his work as a student equipped him with the point of view of the analytical chemist; his research for his doctorate was in organic chemistry; and he devoted much attention to the study in Germany of the new physical chemistry which was being rapidly developed

at that time. He was impressed with the importance of the advance of the science in this direction, and or his return from Germany he introduced at the insti tute a course in physical chemistry, which he taugh successfully. This course was one of the first in this subject given in American universities.

When Dr. Talbot took over the instruction of the first-year students, he felt the advisability of bringing before them the more fundamental concepts of the newer chemistry. He accordingly prepared, with the assistance of Professor Arthur A. Blanchard, a tex for this purpose entitled "The Electrolytic Dissocia tion Theory." Professor Talbot's progressive action in these two cases is typical of his attitude in educa tional affairs. He was the leader in the developmen of his department to its present efficient conditio: and served as chairman of committees on chemica education in the American Chemical Society and th Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education He showed unusual interest in the teaching of hig school science and was helpful in organizations de voted to the improvement of teaching in this field He served as president of the New England Chemistry Teachers' Association and was for several years chie examiner in chemistry of the College Entrance Ex amination Board.

Dr. Talbot's record as a member of the America Chemical Society brought to him the honor of election as one of the five directors who determine the mor important policies of the society and have full charg of its finances. He has been a member of the counci since 1898; he served as associate editor of the Journa of the society and as chairman of the division of in organic and physical chemistry. He also was a mem ber of many important committees.

During the world war Dr. Talbot was appointed member of a small committee to act in an advisor capacity to the Bureau of Mines in the work it ha undertaken in correlating the chemical activities o the country to meet the problems arising from ga warfare. He was particularly helpful in presenting to the Secretary of War directly the needs of this or ganization, which carried on for over a year, outsid of the war department, all the work on war gases.

Dr. Talbot was always interested in research. I the years following his return from Germany he pub lished the results of several investigations in the fie of inorganic and analytical chemistry. For a numbe of years he was chairman of the committee of th American Academy of Arts and Sciences that ha charge of the C. M. Warren Fund, the income o which is devoted to aiding chemical research. In re cent years the small amount of time available, afte he had completed his work as a teacher and adminitrator, was devoted to editorial work and the writin

of papers on educational, scientific and industrial subjects. He is the author of a widely used text-book on quantitative analysis. Professor Talbot was the consulting editor of the International Chemical Series, which comprises books on a wide range of subjects in the field of chemistry. During the war the Atlantic Monthly published a series of papers by him on gas warfare. These were written in the interesting and lucid style which is characteristic of all of his writings. As chairman of the faculty, and of the administrative committee after the death of President Maclaurin, Professor Talbot had much to do with shaping the recent policies of the institute.

Professor Talbot's work has always been appreciated by chemists. Dartmouth College gave him the honorary degree of doctor of science in 1921. In bestowing the distinction his record was summed up as follows: "Henry Paul Talbot-administrator and scholar, faithful and versatile contributor to the welfare of a distinguished sister institution of high learning; scientist whose interest in the discovery of new truths is matched by instinct for the application of those truths, of whose knowledge you have possessed yourself; by virtue of the authority vested in Lae I welcome you to the fellowship of Dartmouth men and I confer upon you the honorary degree of doctor of science."

In the midst of all his scientific, educational and administrative activities Dr. Talbot consented to accept the important appointment of dean.

Dr. Talbot always showed a keen personal interest in the students as individuals. One of my colleagues, in pointing out the cordial relationship that existed between Professor Talbot and the students who knew him well, noted the fact, evident to us all, that he retained the spirit of youth. To the younger members of the department which Dr. Talbot directed for so many years, his life was always an example of loyal devotion to an ideal; every official act was the result of a conscientious and unselfish desire to do what was best for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His will, filed for probate just before this was written, expressed in a concrete way his interest in these younger men and in the institute. He names the institute as a residuary legatee and suggests, but does not require, that a part of the whole of the bequest be used to assist junior members of the institute's staff to attend meetings of the societies of their professions. JAMES F. NORRIS

SCIENTIFIC EVENTS

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS OF WESTERN
NATIONAL PARKS

Two topographic maps of western national parks have been published by the Geological Survey of the Department of the Interior; one is a map of an

area including the Sequoia and General Grant National Parks, California, and the other a map of the east half of the Grand Canyon National Park, Ari

zona.

The maps are printed in three colors-black showing the works of man, blue showing the rivers and other water features and brown showing the contour lines of altitude that are the distinguishing features of a topographic map. Both maps appear almost like relief models of the areas they portray.

The Grand Canyon map includes the part of the Grand Canyon extending from its head southward and westward to Crystal Rapids and bounded on the north by the Kaibab Plateau, on the east by the Painted Desert, and on the south by the Coconino Plateau. The great contrasts in topography between the canyon slopes and the surrounding plateaus and those between the walls of the main canyon and of the Granite Gorge are clearly shown. The sculptural details of the canyon walls, as well as the buttes and the temples that stand out from the main slopes, are faithfully represented on the map, and the fact that

the surface of the Coconino Plateau descends southward away from the canyon rim is well shown along the southern margin of the map. The numerous rapids along the Colorado River are indicated by symbols, and the location of the trails, camps and springs are shown. The Grand Canyon map measures 41 by 65 inches and is sold by the Geological Survey at 25 cents a copy.

sea.

The map of the Sequoia and General Grant National Parks embraces an area in eastern California, situated mainly in the Sierra Nevada, and includes these two parks, the Sequoia National Game Reserve, and considerable portions of the Sequoia, Sierra and Inyo National Forests. The northeast corner of the area lies in the Inyo Mountains, and the east side is crossed by Owens Valley, whose floor is shown to lie some 3,700 feet above sea-level. West of Owens Valley the great eastern wall of the Sierra rises abruptly 5,000 to 7,000 feet and is topped by many summits that stand 12,000 to 14,000 feet above the Among them is Mount Whitney, 14,501 feet, the highest point in the United States. The western slopes of the Sierra, which occupy the greater part of the area shown on the map, are seen to be deeply trenched by the rugged canyons of Kings, Keweah and Kern Rivers-the Kings River canyon one of the deepest in the world. This part of the area abounds in gorges, domes, alpine meadows, glacial cirques and cirque lakes, there being several hundred small lakes among the higher summits and divides. The area also contains a dozen groves of the "Big Trees." This map measures 32 by 29 inches and may be obtained from the U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.

STANDARDS FOR SCIENTIFIC AND ENGI

NEERING SYMBOLS AND
ABBREVIATIONS

THE decision to undertake the standardization of scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations as a national enterprise was made at a general conference called by the American Engineering Standards Committee and held in the rooms of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers on February 13, 1923. Three organizations, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, made the original recommendations which resulted in the calling of this confer

ence.

Official representatives of national organizations attended this conference and after a full discussion they voted unanimously that this project should be undertaken, and that the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, the Society for Promotion of Engineering Education and the U. S. Bureau of Standards should be requested to accept joint sponsorship. Later the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the American Society of Civil Engineers were invited to become joint sponsors.

The sectional committee on scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations now consists of thirty members representing thirty-seven national organizations. It has organized nine subcommittees to which have been assigned the following divisions of the subject, (1) Symbols for Mechanics, Structural Engineering and Testing Materials, (2) Symbols for Hydraulics, (3) Symbols for Heat and Thermodynamics, (4) Symbols for Photometry and Illumination, (5) Aeronautical Symbols, (6) Mathematical Symbols, (7) Electrotechnical Symbols including Radio, (8) Navigational and Topographical Symbols, (9) Abbreviations for Scientific and Engineering Terms. The reports of these subcommittees will be prepared and issued separately.

Mathematical Symbols. The proposed standard for Mathematical Symbols was developed by Subcommittee No. 6, of which Mr. Edward V. Huntington, professor of mechanics, Harvard University, is chairman. A draft of this subcommittee report was considered at a meeting of the executive committee of the sectional committee in January, 1927, and was approved, with slight amendments, which subsequently were introduced into the report by the subcommittee. The report was submitted to the members of the sectional committee on April 25, 1927, and received its approval. A few minor suggestions for modification were submitted by individuals, but it has been considered inexpedient by the sectional commit

tee to reopen the whole matter for consideration of these few individual suggestions.

They are, therefore, included as an "Appendix" to the report, with the recommendation that when the report shall be reconsidered for revision they shall receive due consideration. The proposed standard is now before the five sponsor bodies for their approval and transmission to the American Engineering Standards Committee for approval.

Aeronautical Symbols. Subcommittee No. 5, Professor Joseph S. Ames, the Johns Hopkins University, chairman, has taken advantage of the early work of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics. The list of approximately 100 letter symbols which it now proposes for criticism and comment have for the most part been in use by the National Advisory Committee for the past few years.

This report of the subcommittee was approved by the executive committee of the sectional committee. January 22, 1927, subject to possible modification by the executive committee after consideration of conflicts and duplications in symbols. The attached statement of conflicts and duplications in symbols was considered by the subcommittee, after which the original report was reaffirmed on April 19, 1927. The subcommittee report is now issued in tentative form with a request for criticism and suggestion from all concerned. Communications may be directed to Preston S. Miller, secretary of the sectional committee, Eightieth Street and East End Avenue, New York, N. Y.

FLOOD CONTROL BY REFORESTATION IN MISSISSIPPI

AN extensive survey under which will be brought together all available information upon the location and area of forests needed on the Mississippi watershed as a part of flood prevention and control has been started by the Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture and will be completed by early fall.

"The survey," says Col. William B. Greeley, chie forester, "will define the main tributaries of the Mississippi to be treated as units, and for each of these tributaries data will be brought together on th acreage, the amount and character of the precipita tion, the more essential or more common soil classes features of physiography, including ruggedness topography, natural reservoirs, etc., the general char acter of the vegetative cover, and a rating of the value of the protective cover as a means of flood pre vention and control."

The object of the survey is to bring out on this enormous drainage basin the area or watershed where, on account of rainfall, character of soil, topog