understood. Making every allowance for a different system of vocalisation, such changes as

Pultuke from Polynikes, Akhmiem from Agamemnun,

are unmistakeably barbarous, and betray an absolute ignorance of the elements of which the Greek name is composed.

Thus atrium may have been inorganically formed from aepov. But as to haruspex, which is also said to be an Etruscan word, we shall see below1 that it is thoroughly Latin, and has its Indo-Germanic root; it may, for all that, have been Etruscan, but it is not a corruption of iepoσкÓTоs. Both also may have been words of the conquered Helleno-Italic population of Etruria. Indeed, vorsus, "a square of one hundred feet," is quoted as being both Tuscan and Umbrian; and it is admitted that the Umbrians originally occupied Tyrrhenia.'-Vol. i. pp. 84-87.

Subjoined is Dr. Aufrecht's report of the last results of his Etruscan researches:

The convincing proofs of the Indo-European character of the Etruscan grammar, are principally the following facts:

1. On the Cippus Pennimus we find the following forms of the word Velthina:

Velthina, Velthinas, Velthinam.

That is the genitive termination, as in the other Indo-European languages, is undeniable.

2. We find a, ia, the termination of female names, exactly as in Greek and Latin.

3. Al is the patronymic and metronymic termination, which evidently corresponds with the Latin Alis, as in Australis, Arvalis, Triumphalis.

4. Sa added to a man's name indicates the name of his wife; thus Larthial-i-sa means the consort of the son of Larthius. This form also bears the character of the Indo-Germanic languages, while that syllable has a genitive signification. In a similar way, the Greek genitive in oto, originally oơto, is not properly a case, but an adjective, inño—σ—10 = equestris. The barbarous sound of the words in the Etruscan inscriptions, certainly cannot be explained by the accumulation of consonants alone; for earlier inscriptions, (that of Agylla and some shorter ones,) have many more vowels than the later. The only admissible explanation of this phenomenon is the assumption, that the Etruscan is a mixed language. We have abundant examples that the consequence of a mixture of two very different languages is, that they both become decomposed, and lose their former clearness, lexically as well as etymologically. I assume it to be a historical fact, that the conquering Etruscans took Tyrrhenia from the Umbrians; and I deny the historical existence of Pelasgi in Italy, whether their language were akin to Greek or not.

'I have, therefore, adopted another mode of getting nearer to the barbarous element in Etruscan. The Euganean inscriptions which are found in the southern part of Rætia, as well as in Lombardy, particularly about Padua, and other ancient inscriptions which have come to light in that district, exhibit the same alphabet, (except that the O occurs in them, which is unknown in Southern Etruria,) and a language, which, in its character, bears strong resemblance to the Etruscan. But I abstain from following up this conjecture until new monuments come to our aid.'

As long as there is no bilingual monument of any extent, the full fruits of Dr. Freund's mission to Rætia by the Berlin

1 He supposes it had a common root with hariolus, and meant simply to observe the entrails of victims.

Academy of Sciences, to which allusion was made in our former article, cannot be reaped. The last researches instituted on the specific Romanic language now spoken there, having shown that, beside the ordinary Romanic words, and some roots bearing a Celtic character, there remained about one-tenth which could not be reduced to either, he engaged in this expedition, with the view of examining this mysterious caput mortuum. He discovered a far greater number of the words of that primitive residue than he expected. The fact of their existence is of great importance; but it will be difficult to identify them, until a monument, of the character described above, shall have been discovered.

In pronouncing the Etruscan to be a mixed language, the results of philology conspire with ethnological conclusions. The national civilization is obviously similar in character; it has its Oriental, it has its classical affinities; but the latter never formed the prevalent type. The Etruscan influence in Italy presents many points of analogy to the Moorish dominion in Spain; the Moors left no enduring legacy of arts and social culture to posterity, and the Etruscans, though brought into intimate connexion with the two noblest nations of antiquity, never attained to Greek and Roman humanities.

Up to the present time, then, modern research has only effected for Etruria the discovery, that her language belongs to the Indo-European family; with what elements it was blended, what was its relationship to other members of the same family, is a question still to be cleared up; its obscurity can only be dispelled by the discovery of monumental remains and inscriptions, to which a scientific philological theory may be applied.

Before closing this article, it may be well to point to the elucidation which recent researches have given to a well-known remark of Niebuhr, who, in illustrating his belief that the Latin was a mixed language, referred to the fact that, whereas the words belonging to the sphere of peaceable rural life agree in Greek and Latin, the Latin expressions for everything belonging to warfare, arms, and hunting, have no words corresponding to them in Greek. Upon this illustration Dr. Arnold founded the gratuitous illusion, that the Latin people arose out of a conquest of the Pelasgians (the Greek element) by the Oscans; so that the latter were the ruling class of the 'united nation, the former were its subjects.'-Roman History, vol. i. p. 22.

This is a mere conjecture, which ought not to have been intruded, in its peremptory dogmatic form, as an undoubted historical conclusion. It is entirely unauthorzied by subsequent discovery; comparative philology shows the fact referred to to be

of general occurrence in the Indo-Germanic languages. "It 'must, therefore,' observes Dr. Aufrecht, 'be explained in a 'manner applicable to all, by the circumstance that those 'nations once lived as peaceable herdsmen,' (the primitive occupation of the human race,) and, in part, at least, as agriculturists, in their original Asiatic abodes.' Thus, the names of the most important domestic animals, and only a few of the wild beasts, as wolf and bear, and the words for primitive wants, (breadstuffs, metals, names of consanguinity and affinity in their furthest extensions,) are, as we must naturally expect, found to be identical, not only in Greek and Latin, but also in the Germanic,' Lithuanian, and Slavonic languages. These words, therefore,' says the learned Doctor, are the Asiatic heir-loom ' of the civilized nations of Europe.' So that, if we find, in the different branches of this stock, different words for the implements of hunting and warfare, we must conclude that they were fixed after the separation took place. In Greek and Latin, however, the diverging terms quoted by Niebuhr, in proof of a mixture, are generally reducible to roots common to all the branches. The natural explanation of this is, that the Greeks and Romans lived longer together, and adopted in common, about the same period, a more southerly direction; whereas the Germans and Slavonics took, or kept in common, a more northerly one.

2

1 Eg. Mother, Osc. amma; old high Germ. amma; compare Ger. amme (nurse); Icelandic, amma (grandmother); Sanskrit, amâ. The Italic expression for man, in opposition to woman, is, Lat. Vir; Umbr. Veir; Teut. Ver; in Skr. Viras.

Dr. Aufrecht exhibits, in proof of this, the etymology of the very words chosen by Niebuhr as instances. Scutum is the Greek σKUTOs, from the root sku, 'to cover;' Parma, nápμn; Jaculum, from jacere, lánтw; Arma, from arcere, that which defends, wards off;' Gr. apкеîν, àλάλкеш. In some others mentioned by him the resemblance is far-fetched.

461

ART. VI.-1. Census of Great Britain, 1851. Education. England and Wales. Report and Tables. London, 1854.

2. Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education. London, 1854.

No department of the Census of 1851, is probably more calculated to produce some practical results than that of education. The secular or general census of the whole population, contains indeed much useful and curious information, which may, in the working of political economy, be turned to valuable account; but in dealing with it, we seem to have before us those great stubborn facts of human life, which are beyond any direct or voluntary control. Births and deaths, or the various ages to which different sexes and classes attain, according to their pursuits or occupations, are, in great measure, facts that remain uninfluenced in the future by the knowledge of the past. They are governed by stern laws of necessity, which act on the inner self of each individual rather than on the community as a whole, and which are beyond any combined or legislative efforts materially to change. The mass or substance on which it is necessary here to operate, is no less than the community itself; it cannot be viewed in the light of an external object to be dealt with as improved knowledge shall direct; but the most we can reasonably hope for, is that our own discretion, with a few compulsory hints, may teach us as a people to become better, wiser, cleaner, more sober, and, therefore, more likely to escape certain evils, which follow the neglect of prudent and wholesome counsel. Much the same may be said of the census of religion; that kind of knowledge which statistics give to the mind, has not much affinity with matters of faith, or the choice of a religion. It is hopeless to expect that any very direct influence can be brought to bear on the public at large, simply from the knowledge of certain varieties in the religious choice of individuals, who act in each case from strong personal motives, far outweighing in importance any effects of a censustable, and over which we have no control.

With regard, however, to education, there is this difference. A distinct subject-matter exists, which is external to ourselves, and with which, moreover, there is felt a very general, and almost unanimous, desire to deal, in an active and practical

manner; to aid which desire was doubtless the object for which the Census was drawn up.

We have, in the reports now before us, to do with the period of human life ranging between 3 and 15. This is a malleable age in itself, and, moreover, it is a period of life which grown-up people, who manage the affairs of the world, will not personally have to encounter any more.

Yet although we may hope for much good, from the information and stimulus imparted to the subject of education by the disclosures of the Census, it does not follow that those disclosures are peculiarly full or correct. In no department of the work were there more difficulties, or more chances of inaccurate statements. Very great opposition had to be encountered at the last moment; and it was discovered that there was no power to compel masters of schools to answer the questions that were thought necessary. It was even in contemplation to abandon the whole inquiry, and that after forms had been distributed to all parts of the country. It was judged, however, advisable to collect, on a purely voluntary basis, what information was possible; leaving the success of the undertaking to the good-will of those whose cooperation was essential. The proper schedules were accordingly sent to 70,000 heads of schools. Owing to the indifference, partly of the census-officers, and partly of the heads of schools, it was afterwards discovered, that with regard to a considerable number of schools, no information had been given. The large amount, however, of useful returns that were promptly received, encouraged the effort to arrive at a greater degree of completeness. A year's close correspondence was necessary for this purpose, and eventually the success was so far greater than had been anticipated, that the tabulation of facts was determined on, upon a more elaborate design than at first had been intended.

The total result is, that returns have been received from 44,836 day-schools, (15,411 public, and 29,425 private;) from 23,137 sunday-schools; from 1545 evening-schools for adults; and from 1057 literary, scientific and mechanics' institutions. About 1,500 other schools, of different kinds, were also reported by the census-officers as not having sent in any returns. The total number of children estimated as attending day-schools, is 2,144,378, of whom 721,396 belong to private schools; while those who attend sunday-schools, are 2,407,642; a further number of 39,783 being reckoned as adult scholars at 1545 evening-schools.

Whether this may be considered satisfactory, is made to depend on the answers that can be given to the following questions: