culture, sewing, manual training in the grades; through commercial high schools, trade schools as yet supported by philanthropic enterprise, commercial and industrial courses in high schools, evening schools, manual training high schools, in the secondary field; through colleges of commerce and schools of applied sciences, either initiated or projected in the higher fields, the educational system of the United States is responding to this most recent social demand upon education which has already such remarkable response in European countries. Thus is the politico-economic tendency shifting from the political to the economic basis in education. The significance of the Froebelian philosophy of education in placing such industrial and constructive work on a rational pedagogical basis has been mentioned (pp. 640, 659). This offers the chief explanation of the fact that it is the Froebelian idea of education that is coming to prevail in the present. REFERENCES General Sociological Discussion, etc. Davidson, Education as World Building, in Ed. Rev., Vol. 20, p. 325. Howerth, Education and Evolution, in Ed. Rev., Vols. 23, 24. Vincent, The Social Mind and Education. (New York, 1897.) Ward, Dynamic Sociology, Vol. II, Chs. X-XIV. (New York, 1883.) Ware, Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry. (New York, 1901.) Development of School Systems. Balfour, Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (Oxford, 1903.) Barnard, German Teachers and Educators. Blackmar, History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States. (United States Bureau of Education, 1890.) Brown, Making of our Middle Schools. Butler, Education in the United States. (Albany, 1900.) Hinsdale, Horace Mann. (New York, 1898.) Hughes, The Making of a Citizen. (New York, 1902.) Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts State School System. (New York, 1901.) Palmer, The New York Public Schools. (New York, 1905.) Randall, History of Common School System of State of New York. (New York, 1873.) Report of the Moseley Educational Commission to the United States. (London, 1904.) Russell, German Higher Schools. Seeley, German School System. (New York, 1896.) United States Bureau of Education, Annual Reports, see general index and educational bibliographies. Wightman, Annals of the Primary Schools. (Boston, 1860.) For special subjects of industrial education, new types of schools, etc., see magazine literature and encyclopedic articles. TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 1. What in detail are the sociological aspects of the educational theory of Pestalozzi as discoverable in his writings? Of Herbart? Of Froebel? 2. To what extent does Pestalozzi's practical work possess direct sociological significance? Herbart's? Froebel's? 3. To what extent does the sociological conception of education find expression in the educational writings of Kant? Of Fichte? Of Rosenkranz? 4. What is Herbert Spencer's conception of history and to what extent is it correct? To what extent has the writing of text-books and of historical treatises been modified in accordance with these ideas? 5. What were the educational ideas of Franklin? Of Jefferson? Of Madison? Of Washington? 6. To what extent did these men or any one of them participate in the educational activities of his times? 7. Is the definition of education in terms of citizenship sufficient? 8. State more in detail the conception of education given in the sociological writings of Comte. Of Ward. Of Spencer. Of Mackenzie. Of Vincent. 9. Give in outline the substance of the school laws of Prussia of 1763 and of 1790. What has been added since? 10. What concrete educational results were due to the efforts of Frederick the Great? Of Maria Theresa? Of Duke Ernst of Gotha-Altenburg? Of the French Revolutionary Conventions? 11. What is the history and what the present success of compulsory education in Prussia? In the United States? 12. Trace out in any given locality the work of the various school societies named, or of any one of them. 13. Give an outline of the Lancasterian school movement in the United States. Of the Fellenberg movement. Of the Infant school movement. 14. To what extent was the early Sunday school movement in England or in the United States related to secular education? 15. Describe the educational methods of the Lancasterian schools. Of the Fellenberg schools. Of the Infant schools. 16. Trace the development of the idea of free schools in any one American commonwealth. CHAPTER XIV CONCLUSION: THE PRESENT ECLECTIC TENDENCY GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The educational thought of the present seeks to summarize these movements of the recent past and to rearrange and relate the essential principles of each in one harmonious whole. The educational activity of the present seeks the same harmony as it reduces these principles to practical schoolroom procedure. All the varieties of experimentation, all of the frequent changes in subjectmatter, in method, in organization, while they bring their evils and appear as curious phenomena to conservative educators of more stable societies, have yet this significance: they are recognitions that new principles have been formulated, new truths recognized, and that practice controlled by tradition or by principles derived from a partial view alone must be readjusted in closer accord with the new truths derived from the ever expanding knowledge of life and of nature. FUSION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND SOCIOLOGICAL TENDENCIES. To this eclectic view of education the three tendencies in the educational thought of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have contributed. In the main the psychological contributions have related to method; the scientific to subject-matter; the sociological to a broader aim and a better institutional machinery. And yet each movement has exerted some influence on method, on purpose, on organization and on subject-matter. The most prominent contributions of these movements can be summarized in a few sentences. From Rousseau came the idea that education is life, that it must center in the child and that it must find its end in the individual and in each particular stage of his life. From Pestalozzi came the idea that efficient educational work depends upon an actual knowledge of the child and a genuine sympathy for him; that education is a growth from within, not a series of accretions from without; that this is the result of the experiences or activities of the child; consequently, that objects not symbols must form the basis of the process of instruction; that sense perception, not processes of memory, form the basis of early training. From Herbart came the idea of a scientific process of instruction; a scientific basis for the organization of the curriculum; and the idea of character as the aim of instruction, to be reached scientifically through the use of method and curriculum as defined. From Froebel came the true conception of the nature of the child; the correct interpretation of the starting point of education in the child's tendency to activity; the true interpretation of the curriculum as the representation to the child of the epitome of the world's experience or of the culture inheritance of the race; and in general the first, and as yet the most complete, application of the theory of evolution to the problem of education. From the scientific tendency came the insistence upon a revision of the idea of a liberal education; a new definition of the culture demanded by present life; and the insistence stronger than ever when reënforced by the sociological view, that industrial, technical, and professional training be introduced into every stage of education and that it all be made to contribute to the development of the free man, — the fully developed citizen. From the sociological tendency came the commonly accepted belief that education is the process of development of society; that its aim is to produce good citizens; that this is accomplished through the fullest development of personality in the individual; that this development of personal ability and character must fit the |