relation itself demands only that the materials of instruction even if classified into the various school subjects, should nevertheless be so organized that they preserve the unity which is essential to the development of a unified consciousness in the individual. In other words, the material should be so unified that it shall be wholly apperceived by the child as it is presented; and thus that it should strengthen and not, through its lack of connectedness and dissimilarity, disorganize or make disproportionate this many-sidedness of interests, and consequently weaken the character of the child.

Herbart and his immediate followers prepared a scheme of concentration of studies, that of the unification of all school instruction upon one central core study, either literature or literature combined with history. Some groups of his followers, notably some in this country, have elaborated schemes of coördination of studies. Coördination does not seek to find one central core study, but accepts a given num ber, five in the scheme of Commissioner Harris, — selected for logical and psychological reasons, as of equal value. These are to be organized so that the material is arranged in a psychological order and that the unities between the subjects are made evident and preserved. Various forms of concentration, based either on the literary and historical studies, or on nature studies, or, where combined with the Froebelian influence, on social activities direct, are frequently employed in the lower grades. In the higher grades few attempts, save at the coördination of studies, have been tried.

General Method. - Independent of any of these schemes is the idea of a general method for the presentation of any subject or any portion of a subject; - a method based upon the nature of the mind's activity and taking its peculiar force and application from the apperceptive or assimilative character of the mind's growth, previously described as the basis of the entire Herbartian pedagogy. Since the early sense-realists a general method had been sought; Herbart was the first

to work this out in detail so that it becomes a method for the immediate process of instruction by the teacher. This method consists in a given series of steps, determined not by the character of the material, but by the way in which the human mind acts and human consciousness expands. These steps are to be followed in every unit of instruction, which presumably is the recitation, though particular units may be determined rather by the subject-matter than by time limits. There is no particular virtue in these steps themselves, nor is the goal that Herbart aims at to be attained by the mere formal application of these steps to a recitation. This method is a mere form to aid in the realization of the great end of instruction, a form of which a teacher who is successful in obtaining that end may be in entire ignorance and in the use of which even the teacher familiar with it should most often be unconscious.

The immediate function of instruction is to furnish the mind with ideas, to establish their proper relationships, to connect them or color them with good will or sympathy that will lead to moral action. The concept interest, which indicates the activities through which the mind expands into the many-sidedness of character, can be differentiated into certain steps; namely, observation, expectation, demand, action. Consequently instruction, which aims to develop this many-sided interest, "must universally point out, connect, teach, philosophize"; and "in matters appertaining to sympathy it should be observing, continuous, elevating, and active in the sphere of reality." Corresponding with these stages are the formal steps of instruction, - clearness, association, system, method, - which may be taken as the basal, at least the basal psychological principle of the recitation. By clearness is meant the apprehension of a single object — practically the observation of Pestalozzi. Ziller, who elaborated this plan of Herbart's pedagogy in its application to elementary education, divided this step into two: preparation, the calling to mind of such

older ideas as have intimate connection with the new to be imparted, and their arrangement in such an order as will explain the meaning of the new and tend to make lasting the impression which it makes; and the actual process of presentation so that the new will be wholly appropriated. Here the concrete materials are finally brought together so that a general idea is found. The third step is that of association

the actual combination of the new with the old. This is the elementary stage in the apperceptive process, and this preliminary fusion is largely the work of the imagination. The fourth step is system,—the complete separation of the general notion from its concrete embodiment in particulars. The general concept is now to be related in a systematic way with previously acquired knowledge, so as to make an organic whole. This is the work of reflection and requires both repetition and definite form of expression in language. The fifth step is method or application. This is the progressive reflection of the pupil as he realizes the general concept gained through activities: the child must make application of his stock of ideas, as rapidly as they are gained, so far as is possible in the limited activities of a child's life. In this way the child's ideas develop and are fused into a harmonious and organic mental life, out of which grows, through suggestion and direction, his active life.

This is but a brief and necessarily superficial account of Herbart's treatment of method, for no man has written with keener insight or with greater suggestiveness or with deeper philosophical penetration concerning the immediate work of instruction. Thus it follows both from his philosophical and psychological foundations of education and from his practical discussions, that the Herbartian influence reveals itself in a strong emphasis upon the importance of instruction and consequently upon the technique of the schoolroom, especially of the recitation, rather than on the general spirit, as was the case with Pestalozzianism. He has truly summarized his sys

tem and thus indicated this influence: "Instruction will form the circle of thought, and education the character. The last is nothing without the first. Herein is contained the whole sum of my pedagogy."

THE FROEBELIAN MOVEMENT. General Characteristics. The Herbartian movement has been primarily one of educational philosophy, from the principles of which have been deduced in various forms the appropriate practices, varying with the time, place and interpreter. On the contrary the Froebelian movement has been one primarily of practice concerning one particular stage of schooling, - the kindergarten, from which has grown among the educational public at large a gradual appreciation of the underlying principles, applicable to every stage of instruction. One great contrast in point of view and in point of emphasis, indicating a fundamental divergence in theory, differentiates the Froebelian from the Herbartian movement. This latter, as previously indicated, is characterized by an emphasis upon the importance of the teaching process and by a perfecting of the technique of instruction. The Froebelian movement is similarly characterized by an emphasis upon the importance of the child, upon his interests, experiences, and activities as the starting point and means of instruction, and by an improvement in the spirit, purpose," atmosphere," and morale of the schoolroom. One exalts the function of the teacher; the other exalts the importance of the child. Herbart laid the emphasis upon instruction as a means for forming moral character; Froebel upon the stimulated and guided activities of the child. Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel-all made moral character the end of education. Pestalozzi would secure it rather by external means, through direct training in moral virtues, and by the distinct though simultaneous training of "head, heart, and hand." Herbart sought the same end, through instruction; for ideas stimulated desires, desires

action, action properly guided by ideas gained from "inter course" produced character. To Froebel, education, beginning with the spontaneous activity of the child and leading from that to ideas and permanently formed volitional interests, was more largely an emotional and volitional than an intellectual training.

In educational theory Herbart worked ahead from the Pestalozzian basis of training in sense perception to the training in apperception and the complete assimilation of the results of experience into a well-formed character. Froebel, from the same starting point, worked back to the more fundamental basis of the inherent character of child nature, as revealed in an earlier period of unorganized sensations, where the possibility of training was found to be most largely in the emotional-volitional aspects of mental activities. The volitional, not as with Herbart the intellectual, character of the human mind was found to be fundamental. While the practical application of these new ideas was made by Froebel to only one stage of education, and that the earliest, the kindergarten, the principles themselves as formulated in his more philosophical works, are fundamental to all stages of education. The attempt to make this application to higher stages in the present and in the future is after all the true Froebelian movement. Some of the most profound changes in educational thought and practice of present times are in accord with, if not in response to, these demands formulated by Froebel. To indicate the farreaching character of these principles one quotation from Education as Development will suffice.

"Therefore, that which is to have true, abiding and blessing, instructive and formative effect on the child as pupil and scholar, and as a future active man, vis. independent employment must not only be founded on life as it actually appears, must not only be connected with life, but must also form itself in harmony with the requirements of life, of the