TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 1. What similarities and dissimilarities between the disciplinary educa tion of the Middle Ages and that of modern times? 2. What historical connection between the disciplinary idea of education of the Middle Ages and its revival during the seventeenth century? 3. What points of disagreement do you find between the philosophical and psychological theories of Locke and his educational doctrines? 4. What are the arguments advanced by John Stuart Mill and Professor Whewell in their controversy of the early half of the nineteenth century concerning the educational value of the classics and mathematics? 5. In what respects did the religious view of the past centuries support the disciplinary conception of education? 6. What are the arguments in favor of the disciplinary conception of education advanced in the Cambridge Essays? 7. In what details does Locke agree with the sense-realists in their view of education? 8. In what with Montaigne? With Rousseau? 9. Give an account of the work of one of the English public schools previous to 1850. At the present time. 10. To what extent did the disciplinary view prevail in the early American colleges? Give a detailed account. II. Give an analysis of the conception of the disciplinary education as expounded at present. 12. What is the explanation of the fact that the public and the press frequently support the old disciplinary view of education in opposition to modern modifications of educational practices? 13. State the problem of disciplinary education of our elementary schools of the present. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF EDUCATIONAL Development DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Newton Francke, 1663-1727 1700. 1702-1714 Voltaire Halley Rousseau Frederick Yale College founded. First American newspaper. First daily newspaper. Compulsory education of both sexes in Saxony. 1712-1778 1746. Rousseau's Princeton founded. 1747 First real schule (in 1688-1744 1707-1788 Emile 1762 Berlin). 1713-1740 Richardson Linnæus Johann Basedow 1748. First Lehrerseminar Frederick the Great 1740-1786 1757. British 1772. Partition 1689-1761 1707-1778 De Foe Franklin Salzmann 1661-1731 1706-1790 1723-1790 founded. 1751. Academy of Philadelphia 1744-1811 founded. Addison Hume Campe. 1746 1818 1754. Kings' (now Columbia) College founded. 1746-1827 1764. 1707-1757 1736-1819 Pestalozzi's East India Gray Leonard and Empire founded. 1716-1771 1743-1794 Knox, Liberal Edwards 1733-1804 1703-1758 Adam John Smith Wesley 1723-1790 1703-1791 Lamarck Diderot 1744 1829 1713-1784 Werner Helvétius 1750-1817 1715-1771 Kant of Poland. 1759-1773_to 1814. Jesuit Order suppressed. 1775-1783. American 1789. First President inaugurated. 1789. States General. Louis XVI 1774-1792 1799. Bonaparte overthrows Directory. 1800. Condillac 1724-1804 Edgeworth, Practical 1763 Special training required of all German teachers. 1763. Founding of present system of Prussian schools. 1774-1793. Basedow's Philanthropinum. Education 1798 1783. Sunday-schools founded. Jean Paul Richter 1784 University of State of 1763-1825 Frederick New York. 1785. Land endowments for public schools in United States. 1759-18241785. Webster's Speller. Bell's Experi 1794. All Prussian teachers ment in declared State officials. Burns 1738-1832 1759-1796 Schleier Schiller macher 1759-1805 1768-1834 1798 in France. Fichte Andrew Bell 1762-1814 1749-1827 1767-1835 Laplace Joseph Lancaster 1795. Lindley Murray's English 1778-1838 grammar. 1758-1843 established. Humboldt Noah Webster 1798. Monitorial System CHAPTER X THE NATURALISTIC TENDENCY IN EDUCATION : ROUSSEAU RELATION TO PREVIOUS MOVEMENTS AND TO THE TIMES. In order to understand the origin of the naturalistic movement in educational thought and practice, one must return to the various phases of the realistic movement in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries; for out of these grew two movements which explain the formalism of the eighteenth century against which naturalism arose as a protest. The first of these was the orthodox religious formalism; the second was the rationalistic formalism of The Enlighten ment. On the one hand is found the formalism in religious thought and life growing out of pietism in Germany, Jansenism in France, and Puritanism in England. Originating as protests against earlier religious formalism, each of these religious movements degenerated during the early eighteenth century into another type of religious formalism. That against which they rebelled had been a formalism of observance. Puritanism and pietism were returns to the early Reformation emphasis on faith, to the simplicity of a nonritualistic worship, and the earnestness of an intensely devo tional life, which found expression in the conduct of everyday life. Jansenism was an emphasis on faith and an opposition to the ceremonial expression of religious feeling that was in strong contrast to the characteristic beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church in general. These reform tendencies had degenerated into a type of life that posited ideals impossible of actual realization by the masses of the people or even by the majority of their devotees; ideals which made the simplest amusements and pleasures heinous sins; and which, consequently, perpetuated, even if they did not develop, a piety that on the part of many became affectation and hypocrisy, and on the part of others became fanaticism and a menace. The heinousness of bell ringing and ball playing to John Bunyan furnishes an example of this extreme pietism; but the reaction as seen in the depth and sincerity of Bunyan's religious experience was radically different from the prevailing spirit of a generation or so later. A tone of cant was introduced into literature and social intercourse, and underneath this a frivolity and licentiousness was introduced into the life of the times. There occurred a notable hiatus between profession and action, between faith formally accepted and life actually lived. The resulting hypocrisy was despised by those who, either through weakness of character or through social situation, were compelled to conform, and by those who honestly believed in the impotency of such rigid ideals of conduct and who had greater faith in the genuineness of human nature and the permissibility of the relaxation and pleasures which it craved. The dominant formalism in France was of a somewhat different type. Here the Church retained all its former power, and exerted a most oppressive influence over thought and action. The reigning monarchs made amends for their licentiousness by persecution and inquisitorial torturing of those who dared question the authority of the Church, and purchased a similar indulgence for their aristocracy by a most intense loyalty to formal orthodoxy. "Ceremonial display and outward magnificence merely veiled moral meanness and inward depravity; punctilious attention to the rites of the Church, and a blind or feigned orthodoxy, only favored the spread of hypocrisy and of a secret and cynical skepticism." This is the summary drawn by Flint. France had been during the seventeenth century the first nation of the world, and during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries had passed through a period comparable to the Periclean or Augustan ages of ancient civilizations. Victorious in war, France had spread abroad her power into other continents and possessed a court more brilliant than any in modern times. The French state was the model of absolutism; French aristocracy had become possessed of all power and wealth. The French language was the language of the courts of Europe and of international communication; French literature had reached a beauty of form not then attained by any other modern language; French manners had attained a refinement and French society a perfection in form and in attractiveness that caused them to be imitated throughout Europe as the highest product of civilization. But the bril liancy of Paris had been purchased at the expense of the provinces; the power of the king had been bought with the slavery of his people; his success in war with the impoverishment of the country; the extravagance of aristocratic society with the sordid lives of the common people. The supremacy of the orthodox Church had been brought about by the suppression of all right of individual judgment; the support of the nobility for the Church and State had been secured by unjust privileges and corrupt lives. In England similar pretentious piety and orthodoxy could exist alongside of laws that enumerated one hundred and sixty-four offenses punishable by death. Nor were these mere statutory forms, for there were many executions for most trivial offenses. Upon the Continent the Inquisition was even yet in operation. In Spain, in 1723, the daughter of the regent of France was treated to the public spectacle of the burning alive of nine heretics as a part of her marriage festivities. France yet forbade the burial of the bodies of heretics in any cemetery; and, in the centers more remote from the "enlightenment |