were all that was perfectible in man; he emphasized the importance of the physical element in education, because he believed, with the ancients, a sound body to be the basis of a sound mind; he believed that the vernacular should come first and should be taught by natural methods. But these positions were taken in opposition to the extremely artificial humanistic education of his times rather than from any new philosophy of the mind or of nature. His constantly expressed preference for things relates to the realities of thought rather than to those of the phenomenal world as with the sense-realists. If it is said, by way of rebuttal, that the humanists also sought for the realities of life and thought, the answer is to be made that the typical educational humanists of Montaigne's time and of the following centuries made no such search; or, if they did, searched in a very limited source and by inadequate methods.

MONTAIGNE NOT A NATURALIST. The third classification of Montaigne, that with the naturalistic educators of the type of Rousseau, is founded upon a similarity of views in many details; but in most fundamental characteristics the views of the two men are radically different. Rousseau, for example, educates by complete isolation from the world, believing that all that society furnishes is evil. Montaigne, on the contrary, as we have seen, would send the boy early into the world; — he himself was sent to college at six years of age and to university at thirteen; — and believing that the best in life was to be gotten from immediate contact with man would educate him for life in society. In fact, with all his skepticism, this arch-skeptic has an abiding faith in human nature and bases his education upon this faith. He does believe that one can learn only through experience; not, however, simply through his own experience as with Rousseau, but rather through the experience of others. Hence the great stress that is laid upon contact with men and the study of history. "In this acquaintance with men, my purpose is that he should give

chief attention to those who live in the records of history. He shall by the aid of books inform himself of the worthiest minds of the best ages. Let him read history, not as an amusing narrative, but as a discipline of the judgment."

MONTAIGNE'S CONCEPTION OF EDUCATION. But few words more are necessary to give in concrete terms Montaigne's conception of the aim of education, expressed as it is in most varied terms of virtue or character and of the practical wisdom of the world. "It is not enough to tie learning to the soul, but to work and incorporate them together; not to tincture the soul merely, but to give it a thorough and perfect dye; and if it will not take color and meliorate its imperfect state, it were, without question, better to leave it alone." "It is not the mind, it is not the body that we are training; it is the man, and we must not divide him into two parts." His idea of virtue he expresses in one place in his conception of the function of the teacher; he should

"make his pupil feel that the height and value of true virtue consists in the facility, utility, and pleasure of its exercise, and that by order and good conduct, not by force, is virtue to be acquired. . . . Virtue is the foster mother of all human pleasures, who, in rendering them just, renders them also pure and permanent; in moderating them, keeps them in breadth and appetite. If the ordinary fortune fails, virtue does without, or frames another, wholly her own, not so feeble and unsteady. She can be rich, potent, and wise, and knows how to lie on a soft and perfumed couch. She loves life, beauty, glory, and health. But her proper and peculiar office is to know how to make a wise use of all these good things, and how to part with them without concern an office more noble than troublesome, but without which the whole course of life is unnatural, turbulent, and deformed."

Not a high idealism, it may be objected, certainly no rigid asceticism; yet a wholesome corrective of the formal morality of the time, and of the pedantic scholarship which passed for education. It is a frank statement of an honest, if some

what materialistic morality; if inferior at many points to the abstract, authoritative, and ineffective idealism of the times, it at least is practicable and far superior to the actual state of affairs.

The adequate preparation for such a life is found in the study of philosophy, which should teach us not what to think, but how to live. "The true philosophers, if they were great in knowledge, were yet much greater in action." By a study of their example and their words "a man shall learn what it is to know, and what it is to be ignorant; what ought to be the end and the design of study; what valor, temperance, and justice are; what difference there is between ambition and avarice, bondage and freedom, license and liberty; by what token a man may know true and solid content; to what extent one may fear and apprehend death, pain, or disgrace." Such further studies as are needed can be selected by the same principle. "Among the liberal studies let us begin with those which make us free; not that they do not all serve in some measure to the instruction and rise of life, as do all other things, but let us make a choice of those which directly and professedly serve to that end." Herein is stated the principle that is coming to be accepted in modern times. In a story from the Greeks, which Montaigne quoted, the same principle is expressed even more trenchantly: "Agesilaus was once asked what he thought most proper for boys to learn? 'What they ought to do when men,' was the reply." The traditional studies are not to be neglected. But their importance is secondary and depends much upon the method. "After having taught your pupil what will make him wise and good, you may then teach him the elements of logic, physics, geometry, and rhetoric. After training, he will quickly make his own that science which best pleases him."

The principles of method enunciated follow as corollaries from the general conception given. Knowledge is to be assimilated, action to be imitated, ideas are to be realized in

conduct. "A boy should not so much memorize his lesson as practice it. Let him repeat it in his actions. We shall discover if there be prudence in him by his undertakings; goodness and justice, by his deportment; grace and judgment, by his speaking; fortitude, by his sickness; temperance, by his pleasures; order, by his management of affairs; and indifference, by his palate." Herein, again, are given both the elements in the ideal and the character of the method. Probably the most famous statement of method found in Montaigne, one which contains the gist of all his educational ideas, is one most frequently known in the manner condemned therein. Apropos of the traditional verbal instruction, he remarks: "To know by heart only is not to know at all; it is simply to keep what one has committed to his memory. What a man knows directly, that will he dispose of without turning to his book or looking to his pattern."

It follows from these principles previously stated that learning should be pleasurable to the child; effort should be taken to make it attractive. For the same reason the harsh measures adopted in most schools to secure application and industry are wholly condemned and rejected.

The sum total of the views on education, whether of purpose, content, or method, Montaigne expresses in words from Cicero: "The best of all arts that of living well-they followed in their lives rather than in their learning."

SENSE-REALISM. The General Characteristics of Senserealism. By this term is indicated that conception of education, formulated during the seventeenth century, which grew out of and included the characteristic phases of the earlier realism previously described, but in addition contained the germs of the modern conception of education whether stated in psychological, sociological, or scientific terms. The term itself is derived from the fundamental belief that knowledge comes primarily through the senses, that education is

consequently founded on a training in sense perception rather than on pure memory activities and directed toward a different kind of subject-matter. So far as most of the characteristics mentioned are concerned, the term "early scientific movement," though it would not so clearly indicate the connection of the tendency with previous development, would be quite as accurate. For the first time we find formulated a general theory of education based upon rational rather than upon empirical grounds. For these reasons Von Raumer termed this group, including some of the more modern reformers who received their inspiration from this earlier thought, innovators. This term, or the term realists, has been frequently used to include the group of men or the tendency here defined with greater distinctness. Influenced by the new discoveries then being made in nature's processes, and the new inventions contrived to take advantage of her forces, imbued with an interest in and a respect for the phenomena of nature as a source of knowledge and truth, these realists held that education itself was a natural rather than an artificial process; and, further, that the laws or principles upon which education should be based were discoverable in nature. This belief gave rise to two tendencies observable in the work of all the representatives of this group; first, that toward the formulation of a rudimentary science or philosophy of education based upon scientific investigation or speculation rather than upon pure empiricism; and, secondly, toward replacing the exclusive literary and linguistic material of the school curriculum with material chosen from natural sciences and from contemporary life. The first tendency constituted the earliest attempt, at least since the time of the Greeks, to formulate an educational psychology, though but a very rudimentary one. While several of these men insisted upon the study of the child and the adaptation of the educational processes to the child, their thought in respect to these educational principles was controlled rather by their theory of