sion of variation and of uniformity throughout the system that characterized the Jesuit Ratio is also found here. The conception of education as well as the control exercised is thoroughly religious. Both in the control of the order and in the conduct of schools the spirit of asceticism is very marked. The most emphasized rule of the schools for both pupils and teachers was that of keeping silence. The teacher is almost forbidden to speak at all. Fewest possible words were to be used by both teacher and pupil. Punishment was to be used instead of reprimand, signals instead of commands, written work was emphasized, and so far as possible restrictive and repressive measures were to be brought to bear upon the child. Contrary to the practice of the Jesuit schools, and subject to the regulation of the order and with the official instruments, corporal punishment was resorted to very freely. The subjects of study in the schools were the ordinary elementary curriculum: reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious instruction. Although elementary study of Latin was also provided for higher grades, instruction was to be primarily in the vernacular. Tuition provided by these schools was given gratuitously, and in this respect as well as in the dominant purpose they resemble the schools of the religious associations of England, previously mentioned. However narrow and repressive the spirit of the schools and the character of the method when compared with the freer spirit of the Protestant elementary schools, the scheme of the order was far superior in two respects, in which they made the first general approach to modern standards. These were the training of the teachers and the grading and method of instruction. One of the greatest defects of the times, especially of the elementary schools, due partly to taking the conduct of the schools from the immediate control of the Church and partly to the unsettled social condition of the times, was the very inferior character of the teaching body. No longer now drawn from the clergy, with at least some education and no other distracting interests, the teachers in the elementary schools were largely made up of church sextons, disabled soldiers, village cobblers, or various persons whose chief occupations were either sedentary or lasting for part of the year only. As early as 1685 the Christian Brethren opened what was probably the first institution for the training of elementary teachers. All the members of the order were to be professionally trained for their work. In other of their normal schools, founded later, primary schools for practice teaching were incorporated. The excellent example thus given waited long for any general imitation. The improvement made in the method of instruction was in the substitution of a simultaneous or class method of recitation for the prevailing individual method. Usually, each child was instructed by most laborious methods in the alphabet, simple words, elementary reading and writing, and rudiments of all the elementary branches. Even in the Jesuits' schools, while the classes were divided into groups under decurions for general discussion, each student finally recited in person to the master. In some of the German gymnasien a plan similar to the monitorial system later developed in England was adopted. The very familiar plan of class recitation, as a systematic method, the essential feature of all modern schools, was first brought into general use by the Brethren of the Institute. This as a matter of necessity required a more careful grading of the schools than the previous one based upon classification of subject-matter only. General: SELECTED REFERENCES Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, Chs. XVI, XVII. Beard, Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany. (London, 1889.) Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge. (Hibbert Lectures, 1883.) Cambridge History, The Reformation, Ch. XIX. (London, 1904.) Fisher, History of the Reformation. (New York, 1888.) Francke, Social Forces in German Literature. (New York, 1897.) Häusser, Period of the Reformation. (New York, 1884.) Jacobs, Martin Luther. (New York, 1898.) Janssen, History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages Vol. I. (St. Louis, 1896.) Kostlin, Martin Luther. (New York, 1883.) Möller, History of the Christian Church. (London, 1892.) Ward, The Counter-Reformation. (London, 1889.) Special: Barnard, German Teachers and Educators, Chs. III-VIII. Compayré, History of Education, Chs. VI, VII. (Boston, 1890.) Drane, Christian Schools and Scholars, Chs. XX-XXIV. Hughes, Loyola, and the Educational System of the Jesuits. (New York, 1899.) Laurie, The Development of Educational Opinion, Chs. III and VIII. Mertz, Das Schulwesen der Deutschen Reformation. (Heidelberg, 1902) Mullinger, The University of Cambridge. (London, 1888.) Nohle, History of the German School System. (Rep. U. S. Com. of Ed., 1897-1898.) Painter, History of Education, pp. 153-194. (New York, 1904.) Painter, Luther on Education. (Philadelphia, 1899.) Quick, Educational Reformers, Chs. III-IV. Richard, Philip Melanchthon, the Preceptor of Germany. (New York 1898.) Russell, German Higher Schools, Chs. II-IV. Schwickerath, Jesuit Education. (St. Louis, 1903.) TOPICS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION 1. In the educational or other writings of Erasmus, Melanchthon, or any other writer of this period, what elements are humanistic and what religious and reformatory? 2. In the writings of Luther, what place is given or what emphasis placed on the right of individual judgment in the use of reason? 3. From the writings of Melanchthon, Luther, or any writer of Refor mation period, what tendencies to formalism are discoverable? 4. Describe the method, the curriculum, or the organization of any one noted Protestant school. 5. What influences, as shown by concrete evidence, were exerted by Melanchthon on Protestant schools? by Sturm? 6. Give a more complete analysis of Luther's educational views. 7. Summarize the arguments of Paulsen (Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts) or Mertz (Das Schulwesen der Deutschen Reformation), concerning the effects of the Reformation upon universities. 8. What were the educational ideas and activities of Calvin? of Zwingli? of John Knox? 9. Trace the beginnings of the public school system in Germany and its connection with the Reformation movement. 10. What relation did the Reformation have to the beginnings of public school education in any other Protestant country? 11. What were the merits and defects of either method, curriculum, organization, or purpose of the Jesuit education as shown by a detailed study of its schools? 12. Of the Port Royalists? 13. Of the schools of the Christian Brethren? 14. Give an estimate of the character and value of the educational writings of the Port Royalists. 15. To what extent were the early schools in America due to Reformation influences? 16. Through what sources, English, Dutch, German, etc., did these influences come? 17. What influence did the English Reformation movement have upon schools? (See Leach, Schools of England at the Time of the Reformation, etc.) 18. What place should be given to religious exercises and the study of religious material in the modern public school system? 19. What is the practice of European schools concerning the use of religious material in the schools? 20. What is the legal status of the use of the Bible and of religious instruction in the schools of the United States? 21. What are the arguments of these religious sects which believe that education should yet be controlled by the Church? 22. To what extent are they valid? 23. To what extent should the religious element enter into the ideal and the process of education? CHAPTER VIII REALISTIC EDUCATION WHAT IS REALISM? — Though not usually included within the Renaissance period, realism represents but a later and higher stage of that movement. As the Renaissance in the fifteenth century revealed itself primarily in ideas of individual attainment and effort after personal culture, and hence became chiefly literary and æsthetic; so the same movement in the sixteenth century became primarily moral, reformatory, and hence chiefly religious and political or social. In the seventeenth century, through a yet further development of the same spirit and of the same forces, the Renaissance became impersonal, non-social, and directed toward a new determination of reality. Hence it became philosophical and scientific. Modern science, which received its first formulation in the seventeenth century and began to modify educational ideas and practices in these tendencies collectively called realism, is the full product of the Renaissance revolution in thought. This tendency only begins to work itself out during the seventeenth century. It has been well said that the movement of Greek thought began with investigation of and speculation concerning natural phenomena and developed into a purely subjective study of man; whereas the Renaissance movement, since stimulated by the rediscovery of Greek thought beginning with its highest product, reversed the process and began among the early humanists of Italy with this subjective study and developed toward the study of natural phenomena and the formulation of science. In this sense the realism of the seventeenth century is but an earnest |