tures in some form, the desirability of reading them in the original, and the necessity for the training of the rational powers, presented new tasks for the school, and demanded the universal and even compulsory education of children of all classes and of both sexes. It is not maintained that the Reformation gave the Bible to the people in the vernacular, For there were at least twenty German editions before that of Luther; nor that it gave the elementary school to the people, for it is probable that the actual opportunity for education open to children of all classes was greater for the century before the Reformation than it was for the century afterward. But the modern practice is undoubtedly an outgrowth of the principles involved in the Reformation.

General Effects. The religious conception of education. which prevailed during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and, in fact, was dominant well into the nineteenth, was marked by certain general characteristics in both Protestant and Roman Catholic countries.

The chief function of education was to develop the religious beliefs and practices, and the ecclesiastical affiliations and interests of the child, for upon these depended his eternal welfare. Religious material, and the linguistic training necessary for the use of such material, constituted the bulk of the subject-matter. Such methods were used as would cultivate a respect for authority and tradition, and would produce a dialectic ability in exposition and argumentation. On the institutional side of education, the schools were either controlled completely by the Church or, in many Protestant countries, by both State and Church; for even where the State exercised formal control, both the teaching and the direct supervision were chiefly in the hands of ecclesiastics.

SOME REFORMATION EDUCATORS. As we have seen that it is impossible to distinguish between the Renaissance movement and the Reformation movement in all of north

Europe, so it is quite difficult also to differentiate the humanistic educators from the religious educators of the sixteenth century. From the fact that the new learning was given a reformatory bent, the north European humanists were collectively responsible for the Reformation movement. While many of them, such as Erasmus, Wimpfeling, More and Rabelais, among the more prominent, refused to break with the Church, and rejected the violent methods of the reformers, they could not dissociate themselves from this responsibility. This truth was put in a homely way by Luther, when he said that he but hatched the egg laid by Erasmus. To which Erasmus replied that the egg was but a hen's egg, while Luther had hatched a game cock. So, on the one hand, many of those prominent as humanistic educators, such as Sturm, are quite as good representatives of religious as of humanistic education; and, on the other hand, many of those usually considered as Reformation educators, such as Melanchthon, are quite as thoroughly humanistic as any mentioned in the previous chapter. This lack of definiteness in the delimitation exists in other groups as well. For example, Comenius, later taken as the chief representative of the sense realists, is quite as truly a leader in the educational movement of the Reformation as either Luther or Melanchthon. In other words, the religious aspect of the work of these educators is revealed in the purpose and organization of education, while the humanistic or realistic aspect appears in the content or subject-matter. Though but a few of them are here mentioned in detail, the Reformation and the counterReformation movements produced many great educators and leaders of educational thought. In fact, it was a consequence of the character of the later Renaissance movement that all the religious leaders seized upon education as the chief instrument for bringing about the reforms which they desired. On the Protestant side, the great leaders are natu rally Luther and Melanchthon.

John Calvin (1509-1564) was occupied during the greater part of his life in religious and theological controversies. Only during his later years did he give especial attention to education. He then organized a college at Geneva, which was little more than a typical humanistic Latin school. Later, these schools became quite numerous throughout France among the Protestant communities. With the expulsion of the Huguenots, many schools of a similar type, under the patronage or influence of the French refugees, were established in Germany, as a type scarcely to be distinguished from the Furstenschulen previously mentioned (p. 389). Zwingli (14841532), the great Swiss reformer, fostered the humanistic learning, encouraged the formation of elementary schools, and wrote a treatise on "The manner of instructing and bringing up boys in a Christian way” (1524). John Knox (1505–1572), the leader of the Scotch Reformation, was the chief agent in the establishment of the parish school system of Scotland.

Martin Luther (1483-1546), the great protagonist of the Reformation, assumed the leadership of the educational movement that had already begun in Germany, even before the germs of the Renaissance ideas took root. This movement worked toward the deliverance of education, through the power of the State, from the trammels which by a gradual process through centuries had been forged for it by the Church; toward a wider dissemination of the opportunities for education; and toward a truer conception of the function of education in life, both religious and secular. All of these tendencies harmonized with Luther's beliefs, and the success of the Reformation necessitated at least a partial realization of them; yet all three had existed before the time of Luther. Beginning with the last mentioned, that toward a broader view of the nature and function of education, let us consider Luther's influence in connection with each of these tendencies.

Luther's condemnation of the education given by monastic

and ecclesiastical schools was very harsh. While the burgher schools were now frequent in the larger cities, most of these, especially those of an elementary character, were wholly dominated by the teachers and the spirit of the Church schools. The smaller towns and villages were quite unpro vided with any other kind. Against their narrow outlook, ascetic spirit, and harsh discipline, he writes thus:

"Solomon was a right royal schoolmaster. He does not forbid children from mingling with the world, or from enjoying themselves, as the monks do their scholars; for they will thus become clods and blockheads, as Anselm likewise perceived. Said this one: a young man, thus hedged about, and cut off from society, is like a young tree, whose nature it is to grow and bear fruit, planted in a small and narrow pot.' For the monks have imprisoned the youth whom they have had in charge, as men put birds in dark cages, so that they could neither see nor converse with any one. But it is dangerous for youth to be thus alone, thus debarred from social intercourse. Wherefore, we ought to permit young people to see, and hear, and know what is taking place around them in the world, yet so that you hold them under discipline, and teach them self-respect. Your monkish strictness is never productive of any good fruit. It is an excellent thing for a young man to be frequently in the society of others; yet he must be honorably trained to adhere to the principles of integrity, and to virtue, and to shun the contamination of vice. This monkish tyranny is, moreover, an absolute injury to the young; for they stand in quite as much need of pleasure and recreation as of eating and drinking; their health, too, will be firmer and the more vigorous by this means."

This passage gives, not only his condemnation of the old, but his conception of the new. The purpose and scope of education are no longer to be dominated solely by religion and the Church.

"Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell, it would be still necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here below, as the history of the Greeks and the Romans plainly teaches

The world has need of educated men and women, to the end that the men may govern the country properly, and that the women may properly bring up their children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of their households."

Almost every variation of this conception of education as a training essential to the ordinary duties of life in the home, the occupation, the State and the Church receives emphasis in his writings or his sermons to the German people. Consequently, the family is looked upon as an educational institution not even secondary to the school. Education becomes something broader than the school. But the school itself is broader than that which then existed, and, it may be remarked, much broader than those established by his followers of the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. It is true that Latin and Greek constitute the bulk of the curriculum. To those languages he adds Hebrew, and also attempts to bring this linguistic education within the reach of all. But his curriculum is much more than linguistic. He adds the logic and mathematics demanded by the times, but lays a new emphasis on history, on science, as then conceived, and upon music. This latter provision indicates one of Luther's most important influences upon the German people, for music thus becomes a component part of the education of all. Gymnastics and physical education are given a place new to German thought.

The fundamental relation of the Reformation to universal education has been noticed previously. Luther quickly seized this important point and insisted upon it throughout his teachings. Schooling was to be brought to all the people, noble and common, rich and poor; it was to include both boys and girls — a remarkable advance; finally, the State was to use compulsion if necessary. In this connection the supplementary function of the school in education again comes to the fore. Luther advocated a school day of two hours, so arranged that it would allow the older children and youth to